18th Century Reform

Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekananda

The 19th-century God-man of India was not a supporter of any cult, nor do they show a new path to salvation. Their message was God-consciousness. According to them, the traditions become dogmatic and oppressive and religious teachings lose their transforming power when God-consciousness falls short.

Ramakrishna Mission (AD 1836-1886)

Ramakrishna Paramhansa was a priest in a temple at Dakshineswar near Calcutta. After coming in contact with the leaders of other religions, he accepted the sanctity of all faiths. Almost all religious reformers of his time, including Keshab Chandra Sen and Dayanand called on him for religious discussion and guidance. The contemporary Indian intellectuals, whose faith in their own cultures had been shaken by the challenge from the west, found reassurance from his teachings. In order to propagate the teachings of Ramakrishna and put them into practice, Ramakrishna Mission was founded in 1897 by his favourite disciple Vivekananda. The mission stood for social service. The best way to serve God is to serve mankind was its motto. Ramakrishna Mission, since its beginning, has grown into a very powerful centre of numerous public activities. These include organizing relief during floods, famines and epidemics, establishing hospitals and running educational institutions.

Vivekananda (AD 1863-1902)

Vivekananda had a character altogether different from that of his master. He studied Indian and Western philosophies but could not find peace of mind until he met Ramakrishna. He was, however, not content just with spirituality. The question that constantly agitated him was the degenerated condition of his motherland. After an all-India tour he found that “poverty, squalor, loss of mental vigour and no hope for the future were prevalent everywhere.

Vivekananda frankly stated, “It is we who are responsible for all our misery and all our degradation”. He urged his countrymen to work for their own salvation. So he took upon himself the task of awakening his countrymen and reminding them of their weaknesses. He inspired them “to struggle unto life and death to bring about a new state of things -sympathy for the poor, and bread to their hungry mouths, enlightenment to the people at large”.

Vivekananda in 1893 participated in the All World Religions Conference (Parliament of Religions) at Chicago in the U.S.A. His address there made a deep impression on the people of other countries and thus helped to raise the prestige of Indian culture in the eyes of the world.

Ramkrishna Paramhansa’s and Vivekananda’s philosophies moved around harmony of religions. And this harmony is to be realized by deepening of Individual’s God-consciousness.

Ishwar Chandra Vidhya Sagar

Ishwar Chandra Vidhya Sagar was born in a poor Brahman family in 1820, and had a brilliant career as a student of Sanskrit. For his great learning, the Sanskrit College in Calcutta, of which he was the principal for a few years, conferred on him the title of ‘Vidyasagar’.

As with the other princely states, the salute states varied greatly in size and importance. The states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir, both with a 21-gun salute, were each over 200,000 km2 in size, or slightly larger than the whole of Great Britain; in 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16,000,000, comparable to the population of Romania at the time, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million, comparable to that of Switzerland. At the other end of the scale, Janjira and Sachin (11 and 9 guns, respectively, and both ruled by branches of the same dynasty) were respectively 137 km2 and 127 km2 in size, or slightly larger than the island of Jersey; in 1941, Janjira had a population of nearly 14,000, the smallest of the salute states on the subcontinent.

Ishwar Chandra Vidhya Sagar became a legendary figure for his simple living, fearlessness, spirit of self-sacrifice, his devotion to education, to the cause of the downtrodden.

He introduced the study of modern western thought in the Sanskrit College and admitted students belonging to the so-called lower castes to study Sanskrit.

Earlier, studies in Sanskrit College were confined to traditional subjects. The study of Sanskrit itself was a monopoly of Brahmins and the so-called lower castes were not allowed to study it. He made a great contribution to the Bengali language, and is considered the originator of modern Bengali language. He was closely associated with many journals and newspapers and wrote powerful articles advocating social reforms.

His greatest contribution was to the cause of widow upliftment and girl education. He played a great role in the passing of the law which made the marriage of widows legal. He personally took part in the first widow remarriage that was performed in Calcutta in 1856. He was attacked by the orthodox Hindus for his powerful support to the cause of widow remarriage as well as for his efforts at promoting education of girls.

In 1855 he was made special inspector of schools, he opened a number of new schools, including girls’ schools, in the districts under his charge. The authorities did not like this and he resigned from his post. He was closely associated with Drinkwater Bethune who had started the first school for girls’ education in Calcutta in 1849.

Major Contribution of Ishwar Chand

1. He introduced the study of modern Western thought in the Sanskrit college.

2. He played an important role in the upliftment of widow’s and girl’s education.

3. He was one of the contributors to the law passing which made the widow marriage legal.

4. He started the first school for girl’s education in Calcutta in 1849.

5. He was a powerful supporter of widow re-marriage.

6. He was closely associated with many journal and newspapers and wrote powerful, articles advocating social reforms.

7. He was great contributor of Bengali language, and considered as originator of Modern Bengali Language.

Vivian Derozio | Young Bengal Movement

For carrying on the modernizing movements in Bengal the Hindu college of Calcutta, founded in 1817, played an important role. David Hare, an associate of Ram Mohan Roy took keen interest in starting this college. He had come from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern education in Bengal his life’s mission.

In 1826, a young man of 17, Henry Vivian Derozio, whose father was of Portuguese origin and mother an English woman, joined Hindu College as a teacher. Within no time he drew around him the best boys of the college whom he constantly encouraged to think freely, and to question all authorities. Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing an association for debates and discussions on literature, history, philosophy and science. Through these activities, Derozio practically charmed the young students of Calcutta and brought about an intellectual revolution among them.

Derozio and Young Bengal

Derozio’s students, collectively called the Young Bengal, ridiculed all old social traditions and customs, debated the existence of God, defied social and religious convictions and demanded freedom of thought and expression and education for women. They cherished the ideals of French Revolution and the liberal thinking of England. The very strong radical views of this group and their unconventional practices like not showing respect to religious idols alarmed the orthodox Hindus of Calcutta. They thought that the teachings of Derozio were the root cause of the views held by the young boys and exerted pressure on the authorities of the Hindu College to dismiss him. The Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden death in 1831. Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preaching radical views through teaching and journalism.

Ideas and Teaching

Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teachings and by organizing an association for debates and discussions on Literature, History, Philosophy and Science.
Derozio wanted to spread intellectual revolution among young students.
He was a great propounder of liberal thinking.
He was supporter of ‘Freedom of Speech, Thought and Education of Women’.
Defied social and religious conventions.
He stated that radical views were the roots of religious philosophy.
He ridiculed old social traditions and customs, and debated the existence of God.

Ram Mohan Roy| Brahmo Samaj

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as Father of Modern India who founded the first religious reform organisation i.e. Brahmo Samaj in 1828.The two most prominent leader of the Brahmo Samaj were Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen.

Beginning with the reform of certain aspects of religious and social life, this awakening, in course of time, affected every aspect of social, economic, cultural and political life of the country. From the late 18th century, a number of European and Indian scholars began the study of ancient India’s philosophy, science, religions and literature. This growing knowledge of India’s past gave to the Indian people a sense of pride in their civilization.

It also helped the reformers in their work of religious and social reforms. In their struggle against social evils, superstitions and inhuman practices and customs, the reformers used the authority of the ancient texts. While doing so, most of them based themselves on reason rather than mere belief and faith. Thus, Indian religious and social reformers made use of their knowledge of western ideas as well as of ancient learning.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in a well-to-do family in Bengal, probably in 1772. He received his traditional Sanskrit learning at Banaras and Arabic and Persian learning at Patna. Later, he learnt English, Greek and Hebrew. He also knew French and Latin. He made a deep study not only of Hinduism but also of Islam, Christianity and Judaism. He wrote a number of books in Bengali, Hindi, Sanskrit, Persian and English. He started two newspapers, one in Bengali and another in Persian. He was given the title of Raja and sent to England by the Mughal Emperor as his envoy. He reached England in 1831 and died there in 1833. He supported the introduction of English education in India, which was necessary to promote enlightenment and knowledge of science. He was a great believer in the freedom of the press and campaigned for the removal of restrictions on the press.

Ram Mohan Roy was convinced that to purify Hindu religion of the evils that had crept into it, it was necessary to bring to the knowledge of the people the original texts of their religion. For this purpose, he took up the hard and patient job of publishing the Bengali translations of the Vedas and Upanishads.

He advocated belief in a universal religion based on the principle of one supreme God. He condemned idol-worship and the rites and rituals.

Brahama Samaj

His greatest achievement in the field of religious reform was the setting up of the Brahmo Sabha in 1828 and the Brahmo Samaj was the first important organization of religious reforms. It forbade idol-worship and discarded meaningless rites and rituals. The Samaj also forbade its members from attacking any religion.

The greatest achievement in the field of social reform was the abolition of Sati in1829. He had seen how the wife of his elder brother was forced to commit Sati. His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the orthodox Hindus who bitterly attacked him. Ram Mohan Roy realized that the practice of sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. He advocated the abolition of polygamy, and wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit property.

The influence of Brahmo Samaj spread and branches of the Samaj were opened in different parts of the country. The two most prominent leader of the Brahmo Samaj were Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen. To spread the message of Brahmo Samaj Keshab Chandra Sen travelled throughout Madras and Bombay presidencies and, later, the northern India.

In 1866, there was a split in the Brahmo Samaj when Keshab Chandra Sen and his group held views which were more radical than those of the original Brahmo Samajists. They proclaimed freedom from the bondage of caste and customs, and from the authority of scriptures. They advocated and performed inter-caste marriages and widow remarriages, opposed the custom of purdah and condemned caste divisions. They attacked caste rigidity, started taking their food with the people of the so-called lower castes and other religions, opposed restrictions about food and drink, devoted their life to the spread of education and condemned the old Hindu opposition to sea voyages. This movement influenced similar movements of reforms in other parts of the country. While this group rose in prominence, the influence of the other group, which showed little interest in social reforms, declined.

Social Legislation under British Rule

In the begining of the 19th century, Britishers injected various social legislation the policies though helped in abolition of social evils prevalent at that time but gradually led to breach the socio-religious fabric of India since they were mainly focused and based on the English perception and attitude.

The policies of the British with the beginning of 19th century though helped in abolition of social evils prevalent at that time but gradually led to breach the socio-religious fabric of India since they were mainly focused and based on the English perception and attitude.

The Orientalism (Features of Hasting period) exponents stated that Indian Society needed modernization and westernization. They faced acute criticism from a number of ideological streams. To quote Evangelical Challenges led by William Wilberforce and Charles Grant, ‘the Indian Society is full of superstitution, idolatry and tyranny of the priests’.

They supported the modernization of India but through Christian Missionaries. The British introduced several changes in Indian social practices to exemplify the efforts of reformers. The following measures were adopted by the British Government to improve the condition of women and also eradicate various social evils:

Female Infanticide: This practice was very common among upper class Bengalis and Rajputs who considered females as economic burden. Hence, in order to reform the perception of Indian society, the Bengal Regulation Acts of 1795 and 1804 declared murdering of female infant illegal and thus in 1870; an act was passed for the prohibition of female infanticide. The act stated that it was compulsory for parents to register the birth of all children and provided for the verification of female child for some years after birth especially those areas where this custom was very much prevalent.

Abolition of Sati: This was influenced by the step of Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s frontal attack. The British Government decided to abolish the practice of Sati or live burning of widow and declared it as culpable homicide. The Regulation of 1829 was applicable for the first instance to Bengal Presidency alone, but was extended with slight modification to Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.

Abolition of Slavery: This was another practice which came under British scanner. Hence, under Charter Act of 1833 slavery in India was abolished and under Act V of 1843 the practice of slavery got sacked by law and declared illegal. The Penal Code of 1860 also declared trade in slavery illegal.

Widow Remarriage: These practices were high on agenda of Brahma Samaj and issue got polarised. There were a number of steps taken to promote widow remarriage by establishing women’s colleges, universities, associations and preaching of Vedic stand on widow remarriage.

Prohibition of Child Marriage: In 1872, the Native Marriage Act (Civil Marriage Act) intended legislative action for the prohibition but had very limited periphery because it was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims and other recognised religions. In 1891, B.M Malabari’s efforts bore fruit when the act of the Age of Consent was enacted which prohibited the marriage of girl child below the age of 12 years. Finally after Independence, the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act made further changes in the age of marriage, for girls- 18 years and boys 21 years.

Syed Ahmad Khan | Aligarh Movement

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was one of the greatest Muslim reformers of India. He interpreted Quran in the light of modern rationalism and science. His greatest achievement was the establishment of the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College(Also known as Aligarh Muslim University) at Aligarh in 1875.

The most important movement for the spread of modern education and social reform among Muslims was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898). He came from a family of nobles of the Mughal court. He joined the services of the East India Company as a judicial officer and remained loyal to them during the revolt of 1857, whereas the British rulers regarded the Muslims as their ‘real enemies and most dangerous rivals’ and followed a policy of discrimination against them.

Syed Ahmad Khan was deeply concerned at the depressing situation of the Muslims and raising them from their backwardness became his life-long passion and aim. He strove hard to remove the hostility of the British rulers towards the Muslims. He appealed to the Muslims to return to the original Islamic principles of purity and simplicity. He advocated English education for the regeneration of Muslims in India. His emphasis on science particularly offended the orthodox Muslims. He faced opposition from the orthodox sections of Muslims. However, with courage and wisdom, he overcame these obstacles.

In 1864, he founded the Translation Society which was later renamed ‘The Scientific Society’. The society was located at Aligarh. It published Urdu translations of English books on science and other subjects, and an English-Urdu journal for spreading liberal ideas on social reforms. He advocated the removal of many social prejudices that kept the community backward.

His greatest achievement was the establishment of the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College(Also known as Aligarh Muslim University) at Aligarh in 1875. In course of time, this college became the most important educational institution of Indian Muslims. It provided for education in humanities and science throughout English medium and many of its staff members came from England. The college received support from leading Muslims throughout India and the British showed much interest, both officially and otherwise in its development.

The M.A.O. College which later became the Aligarh Muslim University fostered a modern outlook among the generations of students that studied there. The movement of Muslim awakening associated with Syed Ahmad Khan and M.A.O. College came to be known as Aligarh Movement. He opposed the activities of the Indian national congress. He believed, like many other leaders at that time that Indians were not yet ready to govern themselves and that their interests would be best served by remaining loyal to the British rule. He founded the Indian patriotic Association with the support of some Hindu and Muslim leaders to oppose the congress and tried to dissuade the Muslims from joining the congress. He emphasized the unity between Hindus and Muslims.

Conclusion

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was one of the greatest Muslim reformers of India. He interpreted Quran in the light of modern rationalism and science. He took up the struggle against fanaticism, ignorance, narrow mindedness and bigotry and laid emphasis on free thinking.

Muslim Socio-Religious Movements

In the early 19th century, the first signs of Muslim awakening appeared under the leadership of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan of Bareilly in U.P. and Shariatullah of Bengal. This was happening due to the Christian Missionaries, influence of western ideas and modern education. Hence, they set themselves to the task of purifying and strengthening Islam and promoting Islamic learning.

Shariatullah started the ‘Faraizi Movement of Bengal’ which took up initiative to the cause of the peasants. He also expresses strong disapproval to the caste system among Muslims. During the first half of the 19th century only a handful of Muslims of Delhi and Calcutta had taken to English education. Most of them kept themselves away from it because of the attitude of the Ulema or Muslim priest, and the unwillingness of the upper class Muslims to reconcile themselves to the British rule. The Revolt of 1857 created discontentment among British about Muslim due to their active participation.

Hence, being part of the few enlightened, educated Muslims, Shariatullah felt the need for adopting a cooperative policy towards the rulers and improving their social condition with the help of the British.

A few movements were also launched aiming at the spread of modern education and removing social abuses like Purdah and Polygamy. The Mohammedan Literacy Society of Calcutta, founded in 1863 by Nawab Abdul Latif (1828-1893) was one of the earliest organizations to take steps in this direction. It played an important role in the spread of education, particularly among the Muslims of Bengal as well as promoting Hindu-Muslim unity.

Wahabi Movement

It was also known as ‘Walliullah Movement’ which started in response to the western influences and was inspired by the teachings of Shah Walliullah who was regarded as the first Indian Muslim leader. The entire movement was moving around the legacy of Islam- ‘Quran and Hadis’.

Ahmadiya Movement

This movement was started by Mirza Gulam Ahmed in 1889 in order to spread western education among Indian Muslims. The movement was based on liberal principles, just like Brahma Samaj.

The Deoband School

This movement was started against the liberal movement by the orthodox Muslim Ulema to teach the real essence of Islam on the basis of Quran and Hadis, and also to preach the concept of Jihad against the foreign rule.

Conclusion

19th century was the period of awakening not only for the Hindu-Muslim but the entire masses. A number of reformers came forward to eradicate mal-practices performed in the name of religion and preached about the greatness of India’s culture and philosophy. The ideas of self-reliance, self-respect and national pride were propagated.

Reform Movements in Southern India

Beginning in Bengal, the religious and social reform movements spread to other parts of India. By drawing inspiration from the Brahmo Samaj, the Veda Samaj was established in Madras in 1864. It advocated discarding of caste distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and girl education. Like the Brahmo Samaj, the Veda Samaj also condemned superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one supreme God. Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu was the most prominent leader of the Veda Samaj. He translated books of the Brahmo Samaj in Tamil and Telugu. Later, the Brahmo Samaj of South India and its branches were established in some cities of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra. Soon after, branches of the Prarthana Samaj were also opened and the two Samajs worked together for promoting religious and social reforms.

An outstanding leader of the reform movements in southern India was Kandukuri Veeresalingam. He was born in 1848 in an orthodox Brahmin family in Andhra. He was influenced by the ideas of the Brahmo Samaj, particularly those of Keshab Chandra Sen and dedicated himself to the cause of social reforms. In 1876, he started a Telugu journal which was almost exclusively devoted to social reforms. His greatest contribution was to the cause of emancipation of women. This included promoting girl education and widow remarriages.

A significant movement which was particularly important for the upliftment of the oppressed sections of the society was started by Sree Narayana Guru in Kerala. Narayana Guru was born in 1854 in an Ezhava family. The Ezhavas, along with some others in Kerala, were considered untouchable by Hindus of the so-called upper castes. Narayana Guru acquired Sanskrit education and devoted himself to the upliftment of the Ezhavas and other oppressed people. He started establishing temples in which gods or their images had no place. He established the first temple by installing stone from a nearby stream. The stone carried the following words, “Here is the place where all people live in fraternity without caste distinctions and religious rivalry”. Narayana Guru in 1903 founded the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam, which became an important organisation for social reforms. He advocated ‘one caste, one religion and one God’ for all.

Many reformers in southern India concerned themselves with the reform in certain practices connected with Hindu temples. They advocated ending of the system of Devadasis who were attached to the temples. They also demanded that the wealth of the temples should not be amassed by the priests but that the public should exercise control over it. In many temples, people of the so-called lower castes were not allowed to enter and sometimes even some roads adjoining the temples were barred to them. The reformers launched powerful movements for temple-entry and against other evil practices which had become associated with temples.

Reform Movements in Western India

The Prarthana Samaj is one of the prominent reform movement in western India which was founded in 1867 by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang, Mohadev Govind Ranade and Ramakrishna Bhandarkar against the caste system and the practice of untouchability. The leaders of the Prathana Samaj were influenced by the Brahmo Samaj. They worked for improving the status of women and advocated widow remarriage. Ranade, who was also one of the founders of the Indian National Congress, founded the Indian National Social Conference in 1887 with the aim of working for social reforms effectively all over the country. This conference met every year when the sessions of the Indian National Congress were held to discuss social problems. Ranade believed that without social reforms, it was not possible to achieve any progress in the political and economic fields. He was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and declared that in this vast country no progress is possible unless both Hindus and Mohammedans join hands together. Two other great reformers in western India were Gopal Hari Deshmukh Lokahitwadi and Jotirao Govindrao Phule, popularly known as Jotiba or Mahatama Phule. Lokhitwadi was associated with a number of social reform organizations. He condemned the caste system and worked for the upliftment of women.

Social Services Programmes of Prathana Samaj

Spread of female education
Opening orphan homes
Widow’s homes
Night schools
Free clinical

Mahatma Phule dedicated himself to the cause of the oppressed sections of society and women’s upliftment. In 1848, he started a school for the girls of the so-called lower castes and educated his wife so that she could teach in that school. In 1873, he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj which was open to everyone without any distinction of caste and religion. Its aim was to work for winning equal rights for the people of the oppressed castes. Mahatma Phule was opposed to the supremacy of the Brahmins and started the practice of arranging marriage ceremonies without Brahmins priests. Jotiba was given the title of ‘Mahatma’ in recognition of his work for the cause of the oppressed.

Objectives of Satyashodhak Samaj

To liberate the Shudras and Ati Shudras
To prevent their exploitation by the upper caste like Brahmans
To spread of rational thinking
To reject the need for a Brahman priestly class as educational and religious leaders
Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj

In northern India Dayananda Saraswati whose original name was Mul Shankara, born in Kathiawar in 1824 became a rebel by rejecting idol worship at the age of 14. Soon after, he left home and led life of a wandering scholar in search of knowledge. During this period, he acquired mastery over Sanskrit language and literature. In 1863 Dayanand started preaching his doctrine that there was only one god who was to be worshipped not in the form of images but as a spirit. He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to man by god and essentials of modern science could also be traced there. With this message, he went about all over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay. Dayanand preached and wrote in Hindi. The Satyarth Prakash was his most important book.

The use of Hindi made his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India. The Arya Samaj made rapid progress in U.P., Rajasthan, and Gujarat and particularly in Punjab where it became a very important social and political force. The members of the Arya Samaj were guided by 10 principles of which the first one was studying the Vedas. The rest were tenets on virtue and morality. Dayanand framed for them a code of social conduct, in which there was no room for caste distinctions and social inequality.

The Arya Samajists opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. A network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern India to promote the spread of education. The Dayananda Anglo-Vedic School of Lahore, which soon developed into a premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such institutions. Here instructions were given through English and Hindi on modern lines. Among his disciples who wanted to maintain the original spirit of Dayananda founded the Gurukul at Hardwar which was set up on the pattern of ancient Ashrams. Dayananda preached that the Vedas were infallible. This was because of his ardent desire to give the Hindus a definite set of religious beliefs, which would give them a militant character. Similar in nature was his move for the reconversion of those Hindus who had converted to other religions like Islam and Christianity. For this purpose a purificatory ceremony called shuddhi was prescribed. Thus many reformers referred to the Vedas and other ancient texts to support their ideas of religious and social reform. They however, upheld their ideas mainly on the basis of reason and some of them openly questioned the authority of ancient scriptures. Dayanand on the other hand, asserted the infallibility of the Vedas. The influence of Dayanand and Arya Samaj, in the promotion of education, upliftment of women and weakening the hold of the caste system was deeper than that of other reform movements.

Theosophical Society

The Theosophical Society was founded by Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott in 1875 in New York. It was only in 1879, that this ideology gained its roots in the Indian culture and Society. It was crystallised in the Madras Presidency with its headquarters in Adayar. The movement was popularised by Annie Besant in India.

Theosophy is the wisdom underlying all religions when they are stripped of accretions and superstitions. It offers a philosophy which renders life intelligible and demonstrates that justice and love guide the cosmos. Its teachings aid the revelation of the latent spiritual nature in the human being, without dependence on any external phenomena. The Theosophical Society is an organization formed in 1875 to advance theosophy.

Meaning of Theosophy

Theosophy is derived from the Greek word ‘theosophia’ literally meaning “God’s wisdom”. It refers to systems of esoteric philosophy concerning, or seeking direct knowledge of, presumed mysteries of being and nature, particularly concerning the nature of divinity. Its essence is in its referring to hidden knowledge or wisdom that offers the individual enlightenment and salvation. The theosopher seeks to understand the mysteries of the universe and the bonds that unite the universe, humanity, and the divine. The goal of theosophy is to explore the origin of divinity, humanity and the world. From investigation of these topics, theosophers try to discover a coherent description of the purpose and origin of the universe.

The Theosophical Society was founded by Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott in 1875 in New York. It was only in 1879, that this ideology gained its roots in the Indian culture and Society. It was crystallised in the Madras Presidency with its headquarters in Adayar. The movement was popularised by Annie Besant in India. Theosophy was based on three principles:-

Universal brotherhood.
The study of comparative religion and philosophy.
Investigations into the natural laws which seek to understand the unexplained mystic laws!
Roles of Theosophical Society and Theosophist

The Theosophists respected all religions. They were opposed to conversions and believed in the transmigration of soul and occult mysticism. Theosophical Society was an integral part of the revival of Hinduism in India which also brought about a certain degree of social solidarity. To quote Annie Besant “Without Hinduism, India has no future. Hinduism is the soil into which India’s roots are struck, and torn out of that she will invincibly wither as a tree torn out of its place.”

The theosophists also worked for the abolition of caste, untouchability and believed in the philosophy of assimilation. They genuinely worked towards social acceptability and integration of the marginalized sections. They tried to better the conditions of the socially excluded by encouraging them to take up mainstream education. In this regard, Annie Besant also set up several educational societies and propagated the need to spread modern education.

Contribution of Annie Besant

Annie Besant had joined the Theosophical Society in 1889. She was a firm believer in the teachings of Vedas and Upanishads. She considered the Indian soil to be so liberating and enlightening at the same time that she took the nation as her own and made it her permanent abode. She was a protestor against the prevalent evils of the then Indian Society like child marriage, unacceptability of widow remarriage etc. in her attempt to bring education at every doorstep; she started the Banaras Central School… It was around this very nucleus that the present Banaras Hindu University culminated. South India also saw a wave of her efforts in various Schools and colleges being established.

She was also known for impactful writing. Education, philosophy, politics were among the prime concern which she developed on and worked by the means of the Theosophical Society. She also started the home rule league in 1916 similar to the Irish League Movement in her attempt to spread the vision of the Society she vehemently worked for; She published two journals called the “ The New India” and the “Common Weal”. The Theosophical Movement had more appeal among intelligentsia than the masses and made its own mark in the nineteenth century. It came to be allied with Hindu renais­sance.

Features of Theosophical Society

A special relationship could be established between a person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revelation, etc.
The Society accepted the Hindu beliefs in re-incarnation, Karma and drew inspi­ration from the philosophy of the Upanishads and Samkhya, Yoga, and Vedanta School of thoughts.
It called for universal brotherhood without distinction or race, creed, sex, caste, or colour.
The Society sought to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in man.
The movement aimed at the quest of the Hindu spiritual wisdom through Western enlightenment.
The movement revived and strengthened faith in the ancient doctrines and philosophies of the Hindus.
To study and preach Aryan philosophy and religion.
The Upanishads revealed the truth of the absolute: the universe and life.
It was cosmopolitan enough to appreciate all forms of religion and all modes of worship.
Apart from philosophical and spiritual discourse, which the Society carried on, its valuable contribution to the Hindu awakening came from its literary and research activities.
Hindu scriptures were published and translated.
The Society encouraged reforms and framed educational schemes to work them out.

6.The word Adivasi was used for the first time to refer to the tribal people by:[1995] (a)Mahatma Gandhi (b)Thakkar Bappa (c)Jyotiba Phule (d)B.R. Ambedkar
Ans .(b)Adivasi means primitive people.
12.Which one of the following is an important historical novel written during the latter half of the nineteenth century?[1996] (a)Rast Goftar (b)Durgesh Nandini (c)Maratha (d)Nibandhamala
Ans .(b)Durgesh Nandini was written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in 1862-1864 in Bangla
14.What is the correct chronological sequence of the following? 1.Wood’s Education Despatch 2.Macaulay’s minute on education 3.The Sargent Education Report 4.Indian Education (Hunter Commission) Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a)2, 1, 4, 3 (b)2, 1, 3, 4[1997] (c)1, 2, 4, 3 (d)4, 3, 1, 3
Ans .(a)Wood’s Despatch (Magna Carta of English education) – 1854; Macaulay’s Minute on Education – 1835; Sargent Education Report – 1944; Hunter Commission – 1882-83

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Revolts

Tribal Rebellions

1. Peasant Uprising of Rangpur, Bengal (1783 AD)

After 1757 AD, the British established their control over Bengal and they started extracting as much as possible from peasants through revenue contractors. When peasant’s grievances were not redressed by the company officials, they took the law in their hands. Under the leadership of Dirjinarain, they attacked the local cutcheries and storehouses of crops of local agents of the contractors and government officials. Both Hindus and Muslims fought side by side in the uprising. But the company’s armed forces took control of the situation and suppressed the revolt.

2. The Uprising of the Bhills (1818-31 AD)

The Bhills were mostly concentrated in the hill ranges of Khandesh. The British occupation of Khandesh in 1818 AD enraged the Bhills because they were suspicious of the outsider’s incursion into their territory.

3. The Rebellion at Mysore (1830-31 AD)

It was started after the final defeat of Tipu Sultan; the British imposed subsidiary alliance on the Mysore rulers in which they compelled the Mysore rulers to increase revenue. As a result, the Mysore rulers put financial pressure to increase revenue demands from the Zamindars which was ultimately increased the burden of revenue on the cultivators. The peasants broke out against the despotic tendencies of the Zamindars in the province of Nagar under the leadership of Sardar Malla (Son of a common ryot of Kremsi).  The British force regained control of Nagar from the rebel peasants and suppressed the revolt.

 4. The Kol Uprising (1831-32 AD)

The Kols of Singhbhum enjoyed their sovereignty for long centuries under their chiefs. After the advent of the British East India Company, the sovereignty of Kol tribes penetrated by the British law and order which causes tensions among the tribal people. They got angry when British transfer tribal land to the outsiders like merchants and moneylenders which caused a great threat to the hereditary independent power of the tribal chiefs. They revolted the despotic law and order of the British East India Company. This uprising spread over Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Palamau and Manbhum. British East India Company ruthlessly suppressed the revolt and established their control over Kol tribal areas.

5. The Mappila Uprising (1836-54 AD)

Among all the peasant uprisings, it occupies an important place because this revolt challenges the colonial rule. Mappillas were the descendants of Arab settlers and converted Hindus who were cultivating tenants, landless labourers, petty traders and fisherman. When British East India Company established their rule over Malabar Coast brought hardship in the life of the Mappilas especially through land revenue administration. They revolted against the state and landlords.  The British armed forces swung into action to suppress the rebels but failed to subdue them for many years.

6. The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56 AD)

This revolt occurred in the Rajmahal hills of the Santhal region under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu. It began as a reaction against the outsiders, particularly landlords, police and moneylenders.

7. The Ramosi Uprisings (1822-29 AD)

It took place in two phases- Fist in 1822 AD under the leadership of Chittu Singh in 1822 AD against the new pattern of British administration. The second phase of revolt took place between 1825-26 and 1829 AD.

8. The Munda Uprising (1899-1900 AD)

It took place in the Chhotanagpur region near Ranchi under the leadership of Birsa Munda. This revolt is also known as Ulgulan revolt which means ‘great commotion.

 9. Jatra Bhagat and Tana Bhagat Movement (1914 AD)

This movement was started by Jatra Bhagat in 1914 AD. It was a movement for monotheism, abstention from meat, liquor and tribal dance. The Jatra Bhagat and Tana Bhagat movements stressed both anti-colonialism and internal reforms.

The Tribal rebellion in India took place for social, cultural and political reasons, particularly against the acquisition of their land and exerted their rights over forest resources.

The Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was a prolonged period of armed uprising as well as rebellions in Northern and Central India against British occupation of that part of the subcontinent. Small precursors of brewing discontent involving incidences of arson in cantonment areas began to manifest themselves in January. Later, a large-scale rebellion broke out in May and turned into what may be called a full-fledged war in the affected region. This war brought about the end of the British East India Company’s rule in India, and led to the direct rule by the British Government (British Raj) of much of the Indian Subcontinent for the next 90 years.

Causes of 1857 Revolt

The issue of greased cartridges and military grievances has been over-emphasized, as the factor for the Revolt of 1857. However, the recent research has proved that the cartridge was neither the only cause nor even the most important. In fact, the multiple causes i.e., social-religious-political- economic worked together to produce the rebellion.

1. Social and Religious Causes: The British had abandoned its policy of non-interference in the socio-religious life of the Indians. Abolition of Sati (1829), Hindu Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Christian missionaries were allowed to enter India and carry on with their mission of proselytizing. The Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 modified the traditional Hindu law. According to it, the change in religion would not debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father.
2. Economic Causes:British rule led to breakdown of the village self-sufficiency, commercialisation of agriculture which burdened the peasantry, adoption of free trade imperialism from 1800, de-industrialization and drain of wealth all of which led to overall decline of economy.
3. Military Grievances:The extension of British dominion in India had adversely affected the service condition of the Sepoys. They were required to serve in area away from their homes without the payment of extra bhatta. An important cause of Military discontent was the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856, which made it compulsory for the sepoys to cross the seas, whenever required. The Post Office Act of 1854 withdrew the free postage facility for them.
4. Political Causes:The last major extension of the British Indian territory took place during the time of Dalhousie. Dalhousie announced in 1849, that the successor of Bahadur Shah II would have to leave the Red Fort. The annexation of Baghat and Udaipur were however, cancelled and they were restored to their ruling houses. When Dalhousie wanted to apply the Doctrine of Lapse to Karauli (Rajputana), he was overruled by the court of Directors.

leaders Associated with the Revolt of 1857

British Officials Associated with Revolt

Causes of Failure

1. Some of the local rulers like Scidia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana of Nepal provided active support to the British.
2. The military equipment of the rebels was inferior. Comparative lack of efficient leadership.
3. The modern intelligent Indians also didn’t support the cause.

Impact of the Revolt

1. The revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalist elements.
2. The control of Indian administration was passed on to the British Crown by the Government of India Act, 1858.
3. The army was carefully reorganised to prevent the recurrence of such an event.

The Revolt of 1857 was an extremely important event in Indian history. It was mere a product of Sepoy but was accumulated grievances of the people against the Company’s administration and of their dislike for the foreign regime.

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Indian National Movement

Education

Education is a powerful tool to unlock the golden door of freedom which can change the world. With the advent of the British, their policies and measures breached the legacies of traditional schools of learning and this resulted in the need for creating a class of subordinates. To achieve this goal, they instituted a number of acts to create an Indian canvas of English colour through the education system.

Initially, British East India Company was not concerned with the development of education system because their prime motive was trading and profit-making. To rule in India, they planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes to create a class “Indian in blood and colour but English in taste” who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses. This was also called the “downward filtration theory”. The following steps and measures were taken by the British for the development of Education in India.The chronological development of Education during the British Period in India is discussed below:

1813 Act & the Education

1. Charles Grant and William Wilberforce, who was missionary activists, compelled the East India Company to give up its non-invention policy and make way for spreading education through English in order to teach western literature and preach Christianity. Hence, the British Parliament added a clause in 1813 charter that Governor-General-in-Council less than one lakh for education and allowed the Christian Missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India.

2. Act had its own importance because it was first instance that British East India Company acknowledged for the promotion of education in India.

3. With the efforts of R.R.M Roy, the Calcutta College was established for imparting Western education. Also three Sanskrit colleges were set up at Calcutta.

General Committee of Public Instruction, 1823

This committee was formed to look after the development of education in India which was dominated by Orientalists who were the great supporter of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican. Hence, they created paramount of pressure on the British India Company to promote Western Education. As a result, spread of education in India got discursive between Orientalist-Anglicist and Macaulay’s resolution come across with clear picture of British education system.

Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy, 1835

1. This policy was an attempt to create that system of education which educates only upper strata of society through English.

2. English become court language and Persian was abolished as court language.

3. Printings of English books were made free and available at very low price.

4. English education gets more fund as compare to oriental learning.

5. In 1849, JED Bethune founded Bethune School.

6. Agriculture Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar)

7. Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee.

Wood’s Dispatch, 1854

1. It is considered as the “Magna Carta of English Education in India” and contained comprehensive plan for spreading education in India.

2. It states the responsibility of State for the spread of education to the masses.

3. It recommended the hierarchy education level- At bottom, vernacular primary school; at district, Anglo-vernacular High Schools and affiliated college, and affiliated universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Presidency.

4. Recommended English as a medium of instruction for higher studies and vernacular at school level

Hunter Commission (1882-83)

1. It was formed to evaluate the achievements of Wood Dispatch of 1854 under W.W Hunter in 1882.

2. It underlined the state’s role in the extension and improvement of primary education and secondary education.

3. It underlined the transfer of control to district and municipal boards.

4. It recommended two division of secondary education- Literary up to university; Vocational for commercial career.

Sadler Commission

1. It was formed to study on the problems Calcutta University and their recommendations were applicable to other universities also.

2. Their observations were as follows:

I. 12-year school course

II. 3-years degree after the intermediate stage

III. Centralised functioning of universities, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body.

IV. Recommended extended facilities for applied scientific and technological education, teacher’s training and female education.

Hence, we can say the British education system were influence by the aspiration of Christian Missionaries. It was injected to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to increase a number of subordinate posts in administration and in British business concern. That’s why, they emphasis on English as a medium of instruction and also to glorified British conquerors and their administration.

Press

The evolution of Indian press was fraught with developmental difficulties, illiteracy, colonial constraints and repression. It disseminated the ideas of freedom and became prominent tool for freedom struggle. The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser” started by James Augustus in 1780.

In 1780, James Augustus Hickey started “The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser” which was seized in 1872 because of its outspoken criticism of the Government. Later, more newspaper newspaper/journals came up – The Bengal Journal, Calcutta Chronicle, Madras Courier, and Bombay Herald. And this effort of Hickey laid the foundation of press in India. The evolution of Indian Press is discussed below:

Lord Wellesley enacted Censorship of Press Act, 1799

It was enacted by the Lord Wellesley, anticipating French invasion of India. It imposed almost wartime press restrictions including pre-censorship which was later relaxed by the Lord hasting.

Licensing Regulations, 1823

It was enacted by the John Adams. According to this regulation, press without licence was a penal offence. The restriction was directed mainly to Indian language newspapers or those edited by the Indians.

Press Act of 1835 or Metcalfe Act

Metcalfe (Governor General – 1835 – 36) repealed the obnoxious 1823 ordinance and was named, “liberator of the Indian press”

Licensing Act, 1857

This act imposed licensing restriction and the right to stop publication and circulation of book, newspaper or printed matter reserved with the Government.

Registration Act, 1867

This act relaxed the restrictions put by Metcalf‘s Act of 1835 and hence states that Government acts as regulatory not restrictive body.

Vernacular Press Act, 1878

It was constituted for ‘better control’ of the vernacular press and effectively punished and repressed seditious writing. The provisions of the Act are given below:

1. The district magistrate was empowered to call upon the printer and publisher of any vernacular newspaper to enter into a bond with the Government undertaking not to cause disaffection against the government or antipathy between persons of different religions, caste, race through published material; the printer and publisher could also be required to deposit security which could be seized if the offences reoccurred.

2. The magistrate’s action was final and no appeal could be made in a court of law.

3. A vernacular newspaper could get an exemption from the operation of the Act by submitting proof to a government censor.

Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908

This act empowered the magistrates to confiscate press property which published objectionable material likely to cause incitement to murder/acts of violence against the Extremist nationalist activity.

Indian Press Act, 1910

This act was a revision of the Vernacular Act that empowered the local government to demand a security at registration from the printer/publisher and forfeit/deregister if it was an offending newspaper, and the printer of a newspaper was required to submit two copies of each issue to local government

In a nutshell, we can say that the evolution of Indian press was fraught with developmental difficulties, illiteracy, colonial constraints and repression. It disseminated the ideas of freedom and became a prominent tool for freedom struggle.

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Indian National Congress

Formation

The Indian National Congress was formed when 72 delegates from all the presidencies and provinces of India met at Bombay form 28 to 30 December 1885. Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British official in India, played a leading role in the formation of the congress. He established contact with the some of the most important Indian leader all over the country and received their cooperation in forming the congress. Some of the important leaders, who attended this first session of the congress which was held at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, were Dadabhai Naoroji, Kashinath Trimbak Telang, Pherozeshah Mehta, S.Subramania Iyer, P. Ananda Charlu, Dinshaw Edalji Wacha, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, G. Subramania Iyer, M. Veeraraghavarchariar, N.G. Chandavarkar, Rahmatullah M. Sayani and Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. An important leader who was absent was Surendranath Banerjee. He had convened a national conference around the same time at Calcutta.

The first president of the congress was Womesh Chandra Banerjee. The objectives of the congress, as stated by him, were to bring together leaders from different parts of the country to remove all possible prejudices of race, religion and region, to discuss important problems facing the country, and to decide on the activities that the Indian leaders should take up. The congress passed nine resolutions which demanded changes in British policy and reforms in administration.

Significance

The significance of the formation of the first national political organization in India was immediately realized. Barely a week after the session ended, a Calcutta newspaper, The Indian mirror, wrote, the first national congress at Bombay forms an important chapter in the history of British rule in India. The day on which it opened, namely, the 28th December 1885, will form a red letter day in the annals of the national progress of the native races. It is the nucleus of a future parliament for our country, and will lead to good of inconceivable magnitude for our countrymen. It was the day in which we, for the first time, met all our brothers of Madras, Bombay, the North-Western provinces and the Punjab, under the roof of the Gokul Das Tejpal Sanskrit college congress. From the date of this congress we may well count the more rapid development of national progress in India in future.

Aim and Objectives

Promotion of the friendship among the countrymen.
Development and consolidation of feeling of national unity irrespective of race, caste, religion and provinces.
Formation of popular demands and presentation before the Government through petitions.
Training and organisation of public opinion.
Consolidation of sentiments of national unity.
Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems.
Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest.

Sessions of Indian National Congress

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MODERATE VS EXTREMIST

The Moderate

The Moderates were the one who dominate the affairs of the Indian National Congress from 1885-1905. They were Indians but in reality British in taste, intellect, opinions and morality. They believed in patience, steadiness, conciliation and union. The leader of the first phase of the National Movement were A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Badruddin Tyabji, Justice Ranade, G.Subramanya Aiyar etc. They were called moderates because they appeal through petitions, speeches and articles loudly professing loyalty to the British Raj.

Demands of Moderates

They plea for the extension of legislative council that leads to the popular control of administration.
Removal of restriction on freedom of the press and the speech.
Abolition of arms act which breaches the freedom of people
Separation of judiciary from executive
Supporter of Democracy and Nationalism
Exploitative relation of British could be exempted.

Achievements of Moderates

They represented the most aggressive forces of the time which transform the Indian political notion.
They succeeded to burn the flame of political awareness and leadership among the lower middle, middle class and intelligentsia.
They spread the idea of democracy and civil liberty
They sowed the seed of nationalism and laid the foundation of the National Movement.

Conclusion

Hence, we can say that the Moderates were acting like Safety-Valve between the masses and Britisher’s. But over the time their Indian blood rejuvenated and their leadership urges then to overthrow British by an Institutional method.

The Extremist

The political orientation of Extremist originated within the Congress from the anti- partition Bengal agitation. When the British Government refused to annual the partition of Bengal in face of mass protests of the people of Bengal arousing sympathy of the Indian people that disillusioned many young leaders, came to known as Neo-Nationalists or Extremists. The important extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. They were called extremist because they believed that success could be achieved only through bold means.

Reason for the Rise of Extremism

The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892).
The famine and plague of 1896-97 was not eye opening for the exploitative policy for British which degraded the economic condition of people
Colour discrimination Indians in South Africa.
The Russo-Japanese war of 1904 – 05 events play important role in national awakening.

Prominent Extremists

Bal Gangadhar Tilak: He is also called ‘Lokamanya’. His weeklies ‘The (written in English)’ and ‘the Kesari(written in Hindi)’ was revolutionary weapon to attack the rule of British. In 1916, he set up Home Rule League at Poona and given slogan- “Swaraj is my birth-right and I will have it”.
Lala Lajpat Rai: He is also called the ‘Lion of Punjab’. He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement. His famous slogan- ‘Go back Simon’.
Bipan Chandra Pal: He was turned extremist from moderate. He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement. He spread his ideas of nationalism through the nook and corner of Indian by his powerful speeches and writings.
Aurobinda Ghosh: He was another extremist leader and took active participation in the Swadeshi Movement.
Partition of Bengal

It was carried out by the British viceroy of India, Lord Curzon in AD 1905. It was partitioned due to following reason:

To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base of Indian nationalism.
To divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
To show the enormous power of the British Government in doing whatever it liked.
But the partition get vibrant colour of real awakening in freedom struggle mass movement which led the foundation of Boycott and Swadeshi movement.

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INM – TILL 1920

Swadeshi Movement

Swadeshi Movement was started against partition of Bengal and got formal proclamation on August 7, 1905 at a meeting held at the Calcutta Town hall. It was suggested by Krishan Kumar Mitra’s journal Sanjivani in AD 1905.

Swadeshi Movement was started against partition and got formal proclamation of the movement was on August 7, 1905 at a meeting held at the Calcutta Town hall. It was suggested by Krishan Kumar Mitra’s journal Sanjivani in AD 1905. In this movement, Swadeshi leaders appeal to Indian for boycotting of government service, courts, schools and colleges and of foreign goods, promotion of Swadeshi goods, Promotion of National Education through the establishment of national schools and colleges. Hence, it was not only political but economic movement as well.

The Swadeshi Movement was a great success. In Bengal, even the landlords joined the movement. The women and students took to picketing. Students refused using books made of foreign paper. Many leaders were imprisoned and deported like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. Many Indian lost their job and student who took part in movement were not allowed to enter college and school premises. During the movement, singing Vande Mataram was meant to sedition. This was the first instance in which use of Indigenous goods were taken an account.

Conclusion

An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was the emphasis placed on self-reliance or Atmashakti (According to Rabindra Nath Tagore). Several exclusive Indian industrial ventures, Bengal Chemical Swadeshi Stores (Opened by Acharya PC Ray), Lakshmi Cotton Mills, Mohini Mills and National Tannery were started.

Muslim League

On December 30,1906,Muslim league was formed under the leadership of Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk to safeguard the rights of Indian Muslims. Factors that promotes the Muslim league are – British Plan, Lack of Education,Loss of Sovereignty by Muslims,Expression of Religious Colour,Economic backwardness of India.

The partition of Bengal created a communal divide. On December 30, 1906, Muslim league was formed under the leadership of Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk to the notion to safeguard the rights of Indian Muslims. Initially, it gets great support from the British but when it adopted the notion of Self-rule then they get destitution from them. The Amritsar session of the League, held in 1908, under the presidentship of Sir Syed Ali Imam, demanding a separate electorate for the Muslims, this was conceded to them by his Morley-Minto Reform 1909. Maulana Muhammad Ali started an English Journal ‘Comrade’ and an Urdu Paper ‘Hamdard’ to propagate his anti-league views. He also started ‘Al-Hilal ‘which served as a mouthpiece of his Nationalist views.

Factor promoting the Muslim league

British Plan- Dividing Indian on communal lines and adhered separatist attitude in Indian politics. For example- Separate electorate, Played caste politics between non- Brahmins and Brahmins.
Lacks of Education- Muslims were isolated from western and technical education.
Loss Sovereignty by Muslims- 1857 revolt makes British to think that Muslims are dangerous for their colonial policy. As they were established their rule after dethroning the Mughal rule.
Expression of Religious Colour-Most of the historians and radical nationalists glorified India’s one side of our composite culture. They praises were biased because Shivaji, Rana Pratap etc were paraises but they remained silent on Akbar, Sher Shah Suri, Allauddin Khalji, Tipu Sultan etc.
Economic backwardness of India- Lack of Industrialisation causes acute unemployment and British attitude towards cottage industry was pathetic.

Objectives of the formation of league

To promote loyalty of Indian Muslims towards the British government.
To protect the political and other rights of the Indian Muslims and to place their needs and aspirations before the Government.
To overcome on the feeling of hostility among Muslims towards other communities.

Non-Cooperation Movement |Khilafat Movement:

Non-Cooperation movement was started by Gandhi Ji in 1920 to drive the Britishers out of the country and Khilafat movement was organised under the leadership of Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali (popularly known as Ali brothers), Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani and others to force the British government to undo the injustice done to the Sultan of Turkey.

The growing indignation against the British rule led to the launching of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movement. Turkey had fought against Britain in the First World War. Turkey, which was one of the defeated countries, suffered injustices at the hands of Britain. In 1919, a movement was organised under the leadership of Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali (popularly known as Ali brothers), Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani and others to force the Britain government to undo these injustices. The Khilafat committee which was set up to conduct this movement was joined by Gandhi. The sultan of Turkey was also considered the Caliph or Khalifa, the religious head of the Muslims. Therefore the movement over the question of the injustice done to Turkey was called the khilafat movement. It gave a call for non-cooperation. The movement on the Khilafat question soon merged with the movement against the repression in Punjab and for swaraj.

In 1920, the congress, first at a special session held at Calcutta and later at the regular session held at Nagpur under Gandhiji’s leadership, adopted a new programme of struggle against the government. At the Nagpur session which was attended by about 15,000 delegates, the congress constitution was amended and “the attainment of Swarajya by the people of India by all legitimate and peaceful means” became the first article of the constitution of the congress.

The movement was aimed at undoing the injustices done to Punjab and Turkey, and the attainment of Swaraj. It is called the non-cooperation movement because of the methods adopted in this movement. It began with the renunciation of honorary titles like ‘Sir’ that Indians had received from the British government. Subramania Iyer and Rabindranath Tagore had already done so. Gandhiji returned his Kaiser-I-Hind medal in August 1920. Many others followed. Indians no longer thought it honourable to receive titles from the British government and thus to be associated with it. This was followed by the boycott of legislatures.

Most people have refused to cast their votes when elections to the legislatures were held. Thousands of students and teachers left schools and colleges. New educational institutions like the Jamia Millia at Aligarh (later shifted to Delhi) and Kashi Vidyapeeth at Benaras were started by nationalists. Government servants resigned their jobs. Lawyers boycotted law courts. Foreign cloth was burnt in bonfires. There were strikes and hartals all over the country. The movement was a great success and the firings and arrests could not stop it.

Before the year 1921 was out, 30,000 people were in jail. They included most of the prominent leaders. Gandhiji however, was still free. A rebellion had broken out in some parts of Kerala. The rebels were mostly Moplah peasants; hence it is called the Moplah rebellion. The rebellion was suppressed by terrible brutalities. More than 2000 Moplah were killed and about 45,000 arrested. An example of the brutalities was suffocation to death of 67 Moplah prisoners in a railway wagon when they were being shifted from one place to another.

The 1921 session of the congress was held at Ahmadabad. It was presided over by Hakim Ajmal Khan. The session decided to continue the movement and to launch the final stage of the non-cooperation movement. This was to be done by giving a call to the people to refuse to pay taxes. It was started by Gandhiji in Bardoli in Gujarat. It was a very important stage because when people openly declare that they would not pay taxes to the government, they mean that they no longer recognise that the government is legitimate. Gandhiji had always emphasized that the entire movement should be peaceful. However, people were not always able to contain themselves. At Chauri Chaura in U.P., on 5th February 1922, the police, without any provocation, fired at the people who were taking part in a demonstration. The people, in their anger, attacked the police station and set it on fire. 22 policemen were killed inside the police station. Gandhiji had made it a condition that the movement should remain completely peaceful. Gandhiji, hearing the news of the incident, called off the movement.

On 10th March 1922, he was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. With the calling off of the movement, one more phase of the nationalist movement was over. In this movement large mass of people participated all over the country. It spread to the villages also. People came out in open defiance of the government to demand Swaraj. The movement also strengthened the unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. One of the most popular slogans during the movement was “Hindu Musalman Ki Jai”.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

On 13th April, 1919 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar) to protest against the arrest of the two nationalist leaders, Satya Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew. Suddenly, a British military officer, General Dyer, without even giving a warning to the people he ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd for ten minutes till their ammunition was exhausted.

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919 in Amritsar as a “shameful scar” on British Indian history. It is also called as Massacre of Amritsar and one of the most tragic yet landmark events in the history of India. This massacre exposed the inhuman approach of the British when the British troop cold-bloodedly open fire into an unarmed crowd without any warning by General Dyer which had assembled at enclosed park for the public meeting that was banned.

On 13th April people gathered there to protest against the arrest of the two nationalist leaders, Satya Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew. Suddenly, a British military officer, General Dyer, entered the park with his troops. Without even giving a warning to the people to disperse, he ordered his troops fired at the unarmed crowd for ten minutes and when their ammunition was exhausted, they left. In those ten minutes, according to the estimates of the congress, about a thousand persons were killed and about 2000 wounded. The bullet marks can be still seen on the walls of the Jallianwala Bagh which is now a national memorial.

The massacre had been a calculated act and Dyer declared with pride that he had done it to produce ‘moral effect’ on the people and that he had made up his mind that he would shoot down all men if they were going to continue the meeting. He had no regrets. He went to England and some Englishmen collected money to honour him. Others were shocked at this act of brutality and demanded an enquiry. A British newspaper called it as one of the bloody massacres of modern history.

About 21 years later, on 13 March 1940, Udham Singh, an Indian revolutionary, shot Michael O’Dwyer dead who was the Lt. Governor of Punjab at the time of the Jalliawala Bagh massacre. The massacre aroused the fury of the Indian people and the government replied with further brutalities. People in Punjab were made to crawl on the streets. They were put in open cages and flogged. Newspapers were banned and their editors put behind the bars or deported. A reign of terror, like the one that followed the suppression of the revolt of 1857, was let loose.

Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha

Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha movement was started by Gandhi Ji against The Rowlatt Act,1919 for the exclusion of freedom of press and detention without trial set up a Satyagraha Sabha on 24th February 1919 at Bombay. As, the Rowlatt Act empowers the Britishers regarding the suspension of the right of Habeas Corpus.
M. K Gandhi started campaign against Rowlatt bill and set up Satyagraha Sabha 24th February AD 1919 at Bombay. During this agitation, M.K Gandhi given famous quote “It is my firm belief that we shall obtain salvation only through suffering and not by reforms dropping on us from the English they use brute, we soul force”. After the incident of Jallianwala Bagh massacre on 13th April, 1919, the Anti-Rowlatt Satyagarha lost momentum. The movement was against the exclusion of freedom of press and detention without trial.

The Rowlatt Act empowers the British regarding the suspension of the right of Habeas Corpus. This makes National leader furious and started agitation against the tyranny of minority ruling. The country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India during March and April 1919. There were hartals, strikes, processions and demonstrations. In Amritsar, the local leaders Kitchlew and Satyapal were deported (9th April). The arrest of the local leaders led to attacks on the symbols of British authority, on 11th April Martial Law was clamped with General Dyers in command.

On 13th April, a peaceful, unarmed crowd (mostly visitors from nearby villages to attend Baisakhi celebration) which had collected in an enclosed ground (Jallianwala Bagh) to attend a public meeting oblivious of the ban was brutally massacred without warning. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre shocked the entire nation with horror and fired patriotic minds with aggressive determination for vengeance. Gandhi, overwhelmed by the total atmosphere of violence withdrew the movement on 18th April after confessing a ‘Himalayan Blunder’.

Conclusion

After the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on April 13, 1919 the Anti-Rowlatt Satyagarh lost momentum. Moreover, the violence in Punjab, Gujarat and Bengal deeply hurt Gandhi. Hence, M.K Gandhi call off the movement.

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INM – TILL 1930

Swaraj Party

Swaraj Party was formed by Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjandas and was named as “Congress-Khilafat Swarajaya Party”in 1922.It also claimed to be an integral part of the Congress and professes its adherence to Non-Violence & Non-Cooperation Movement and decided to boycott the legislatures. One group led by C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru and Vithalbhai patel wanted that the congress should take part in the elections and wreck the working of legislatures from within. The other group which was led by Vallabhbhai Patel, C. Rajagopalachari and Rajendra Prasad, was opposed to this. They wanted the congress to be engaged in the constructive programme.

In 1922, the congress session held at Gaya and presided over by C.R. Das rejected the proposal for entering the legislatures. The supporters of this proposal formed the congress Khilafat Swarajya party, popularly known as the swaraj party, in 1923. At a special session held at Delhi under the presidentship of Abul kalam Azad, the congress permitted the swarajists to contest the elections. The swarajists won a large number of seats in the central and provincial legislatures. In the absence of mass political activities in this period, the swarajists played a significant role in keeping the spirit of Anti-British protest alive. They made it almost impossible for the British rulers to get the approval of the legislatures for their policies and proposals. For example, in 1928, the government introduced a bill in the legislative assembly which would give it the power to expel from the country those non-Indians who supported India’s struggle for freedom. The bill was defeated. When the government introduce this bill again, Vithalbhai Patel who was the president of the assembly refused to allow it. The debates in the legislatures, in which Indian members often outwitted the government and condemned the government, were read with interest and enthusiasm throughout the country.

The boycott of the legislatures was started again when the mass political struggle was resumed in 1930. Gandhiji was released in February in 1924, and the constructive programme which was accepted by both the sections of the congress became the major activity of the congress. The most important components of the constructive programme were the spread of Khadi, promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability. It became compulsory for anyone who was a member of any congress committee to wear hand-spun and hand-woven Khaddar while engaged in any political or congress activity, and spin 2000 yards of yarn every month. The all India spinner’s association was set up and Khaddar Bhandars were opened all over the country. Gandhiji considered Khadi as the key to the liberation of the poor from their misery and to the economic well-being of the country. It provided means of livelihood to millions of people and enabled spreading the message of the freedom struggle to every part of the country, particularly in the rural areas. It brought the common people of the country close to the congress and made the uplift of the common people an essential part of the work of the congress. The charkha became the symbol of the struggle for freedom.

After the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation movement, communal riots had broken out in some parts of the country. The fight against the poison of communalism was essential for maintaining and strengthening the unity of the people and for carrying on the struggle for freedom. Gandhiji’s work against untouchability was important for removing the worst evil from the Indian society as well as for drawing the downtrodden and oppressed sections of Indian society into the struggle for freedom.

Muddinman Committee (1924)

The British Government had set up a committee under Sir Alexander Muddinman which was popularly known as Muddinman Committee to meet the demand of the Indian Leaders and in view of the resolution adopted by Swaraj Party in early 1920s. The Committee was consisting four Indian members other than British members.

Indian members of the Committee
1. Sir Sivaswami Aiyar

2. Dr. R P Paranjape

3. Sir Tejbahadur Sapru

4. Mohammad Ali Jinnah

The concept behind the appointment of the committee for making an investigation on diarchy issue on the Constitution into the working of the Constitution as set up in 1921 under the Indian Council Act of 1919. The report was submitted in 1925 that consisted of two parts- Majority and Minority Report.

The Majority Report: It consisting of officials and loyalists declared that Dyarchy had not been established. They also felt that the system had not been given a fair trial and hence recommended only minor changes.

The Minority Report: It consisting of only Non-Official Indian stated that the Act of 1919 had failed. It also opined that what was needed was a Constitution framed on a permanent basis with a provision for automatic progress in the future.

Recommendations of Muddinman Committee
1. Condemned Diarchy and recommended minor changes in the duties of non- official Indians.
2. Recommended fundamental changes in the structure of the Government of India Act of 1919.

It, therefore recommended the appointment of a Royal Commission. Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India said that action would take on the basis of majority report.

Butler Committee

The Indian states committee appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Sir Harcourt Butler which was popularly known as ‘the Butler Committee’ to investigate and clarify the relationship between the paramount power and the Princely States in AD 1927.

The committee visited16 States and submitted its report in 1929.

Recommendation of Committee
1. The relationship of the paramount power with the state was not merely a contractual relationship, but a living, growing relationship shaped by the circumstances and policy, resting on the mixture of history and theory.

2. British paramountacy preserve the princely state.

3. State should not be transferred without their own agreement to a relationship with a new government in British India responsible to an Indian legislature.

The Simon Commission

Simon Commission was constituted under the leadership of Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. It was officially known as ‘Indian Statutory Commission’ and consists of four conservative, two Labourites and one liberal member from the British Parliament.

The British government appointed a commission to enquire into the working of the government of India act of 1919 and to suggest further reforms in the system of administration. This commission is known as the Simon commission, after Sir John Simon who headed it. Its appointment came as a rude shock to the Indian people. The members of the commission were all Englishmen and not a single Indian was included in it. The government showed no inclination of accepting the demand for Swaraj. The composition of the commission confirmed the fears of the Indian people. The appointment of the commission sparked off a wave of protest all over the country.

Nehru Report

The Nehru Report demanded that the Fundamental Rights for the people of India wouldn’t be subjected to forfeiture. The reports had drowned an inspiration from the American bill of rights which laid to the foundation of Fundamental Rights provision in the Indian Constitution.

On February 12, 1928, All Parties Conference called at Delhi attended by the representatives of 29 organizations in response to the appointment of Simon Commission and challenge given by Lord Birkenhead secretary of state for India. It was presided over by M.A Ansari. On May 19, 1928 at its meeting at Bombay, the All Parties Conference appointed a committee with Motilal Nehru as its chairman. The purpose was to consider and determine the principles of the Constitution for India.

Recommendations of Nehru Report

• India should be given Dominion Status with the Parliamentary form of Government with bi-cameral legislature that consists of senate and House of Representatives.

• The senate will comprise of two hundred members elected for seven years, while the House of Representatives should consist of five hundred members elected for five years. Governor-General will act on the advice of executive council. It was to be collectively responsible to the parliament.

• There should be Federal form of Government in India with Residuary powers to be vested in Centre. There will be no separate electorate for minorities because it awakens communal sentiments therefore it should be scrapped and joint electorate should be introduced”.

• There will be no reserved seats for communities in Punjab and Bengal. However, reservation of Muslim seats could be possible in the provinces where Muslim population should be at least ten percent.

• Judiciary should be independent from the Executive

• There should be 1/4th Muslim Representation at Centre

• Sind should be separated from Bombay provided it proves to be financially self sufficient.

Jinnah’s ’14 Points’

On December 1928, during all parties meeting Jinnah proposed some amendments on the Nehru’s Report. He proposed ‘Fourteen Points’ for safeguarding the rights and interests of the Muslims in any future constitution of the country. These points covered all the interests of the Muslims at heated time and in this Jinnah stated that it was the parting of ways and that he did not want and would not have anything to do with the Indian National Congress in the future.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Demands

• Federal Constitution with residual powers to provinces.

• Provincial autonomy.

• No constitutional amendment by the centre without the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian federation.

• All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate representation of Muslims in every province without reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority or equality.

• Adequate representation to Muslims in the services and in self-governing bodies.

• One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.

• In any cabinet at the centre or in the provinces, one- third to be Muslims.

• Separate electorates for Muslims.

• No bill or resolution in any legislature to be passed if three-fourths of a minority community considers such a bill or resolution to be against their interests.

• Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP.

• Separation of Sind from Bombay.

• Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.

• Full religious freedom to all communities.

• Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture, education and language.

Conclusion

A comparison of the Nehru Report (1928 AD) with Jinnah’s fourteen points had a political gap between the Muslims and the Hindus in India. Jinnah’s aim was to get more rights for Muslims. It was a constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims in a self-governing India.

Civil Disobedience Movement

The observance of the Independence Day in 1930 was followed by the launching of the Civil Disobedience Movement under the leadership of Gandhi. It began with the famous Dandi March of Gandhi. On 12 March 1930, Gandhi left the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmadabad on foot with 78 other members of the Ashram for Dandi, a village on the western sea-coast of India, at a distance of about 385 km from Ahmadabad. They reached Dandi on 6 April 1930. There, Gandhi broke the salt law. It was illegal for anyone to make salt as it was a government monopoly. Gandhi defied the government by picking up a handful of salt which had been formed by the evaporation of sea. The defiance of the salt law was followed by the spread of Civil Disobedience Movement all over the country. Making of salt spread throughout the country in the first phase of the civil disobedience movement, it became a symbol of the people’s defiance of the government.

In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajgopalchari led a march-similar to the Dandi march-from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam. In Dharsana, in Gujarat, Sarojini Naidu, the famous poetess who was a prominent leader of the congress and had been president of the congress, led non-violent satyagrahis in a march to the salt depots owned by the government. Over 300 satyagrahis were severely injured and two killed in the brutal lathi charge by the police. There were demonstrations, hartals, boycott of foreign goods, and later refusal to pay taxes. Lakhs of people participated in the movement, including a large number of women.

In November 1930, the British government convened the first round table conference in London to consider the reforms proposed by the Simon commission. The congress, which was fighting for the independence of the country, boycotted it. But it was attended by the representatives of Indian princes, Muslim league, Hindu Mahasabha and some others. But nothing came out of it. The British government knew that without the participation of the congress, no decision on constitutional changes In India would be acceptable to the Indian people.

Early in 1931, efforts were made by Viceroy Irwin to persuade the congress to join the second round table conference. An agreement was reached between Gandhi and Irwin, according to which the government agreed to release all political prisoners against whom there were no charges of violence. The congress was to suspend the civil disobedience movement. Many nationalist leaders were unhappy with this agreement. However, at its Karachi session which was held in March 1931 and was presided over by Vallabhbhai Patel, the congress decided to approve the agreement and participate in the second round table conference. Gandhi was chosen to represent the congress at the conference which met in September 1931.

At the Karachi session, of the congress, an important resolution of fundamental rights and economic policy was passed. It laid down the policy of the nationalist movement on social and economic problems facing the country. It mentioned the fundamental rights which would be guaranteed to the people irrespective of caste and religion, and it favoured nationalisation of certain industries, promotion of Indian industries, and schemes for the welfare of workers and peasants. This resolution showed the growing influence of the ideals of socialism on the nationalist movement. Besides Gandhi, who was the sole representative of the congress, there were other Indians who participated in this conference. They included Indian princes, Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communal leaders. These leaders played into the hands of the British. The princes were mainly interested in preserving their position as rulers. The communal leaders had been selected by the British government to attend the conference. They claimed to the representatives of their respective communities and not the country, though their influences within their communities were also limited. Gandhi alone as the representative of the congress represented the whole country.

Neither the princes nor the communal leaders were interested in India’s independence. Therefore, no agreement could be reached and the second round table conference ended in a failure. Gandhi returned to India and the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived. The government repression had been continuing even while the conference was going on and now it was intensified. Gandhi and other leaders were arrested. The government’s efforts to suppress the movement may be seen from the fact that in about a year 120000 persons were sent to jail. The movement was withdrawn in 1934. The congress passed an important resolution in 1934. It demanded that a constituent assembly, elected by the people on the basis of adult franchise, be convened. It declared that only such an assembly could frame a constitution for India. It thus asserted that only the people had the right to decide the form of government under which they would live. Though the congress had failed to achieve its objective, it had succeeded in mobilizing vast sections of the people in the second great mass struggle in the country. It had also adopted radical objectives for the transformation of Indian society.

Impact of Civil Disobedience Movement

• It shattered people’s faith in the British Government and laid the social root for the freedom struggle, and popularised the new method of propaganda like the prabhat pheris, pamphlets etc.

• It ended the exploitative salt policy of British was followed by the defiance of forest law in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Central province and the refusal to pay the rural ‘Chaukidari tax’ in Eastern India.

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INM – TILL 1940

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

M.K Gandhi attended highly official meeting with Lord Irwin on the behalf of the Indian National Congress on negotiating terms of Constitutional reforms. On 5 March 1931, pact was signed between M.K Gandhi and Lord Irwin the Viceroy of India. The pact made the British Government concede some demands, which were given below:

• To withdraw all ordinances and prosecutions.

• To release all the political prisoners.

• To restore the confiscated properties of the satyagarhis.

• To permit the free collection or manufacture of salt.

Second Round Table Conference

• It was held in London during Viceroyalty of Lord Willington during September to December, 1931 and Gandhi attended it to behalf of the Indian National Congress.

• The conference was failed as Gandhi could not agree on the policy of Communal Representation and the refusal of the British Government for the basic Indian demand for freedom.

Third Round Table Conference

• It was held in London on November 17, 1932. This was just a nominal conference, Congress refused to attend it (not invited, in fact) and in Britain, the Labor party also refused to not to attend it. So, only 46 people reached out there.

• Please note that it was this conference where a college student Chaudhary Rahmat Ali proposed the name of the new land specially carved out from India for the Muslims. The name of this “holy” land was – Pakistan.

• Muslim leaders who attended the conference were Muhammad Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq, and Jinnah. The outcome of the Third Round Table conference was the” White Paper” issued by the Government. On the basis of this paper, the Government of India Act 1935 was to be passed.

Communal Awards & Poona Pact

Communal Award was to grant separate electorates in British India for the Forward Caste, Lower Caste, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Untouchables (now known as the Dalits). It is also known as ‘McDonald Award’. Almost everywhere in India mass meeting took place, political leaders different persuasions, like Madam Mohan Malviya, B.R Ambedkar and M.C Raja became active. In the end the succeeded in hammering out an agreement, known as the ‘Poona Pact’.

Communal Award (16 August 1932)

On 16th August, 1932, it was announced by the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald to grant separate electorates in British India for the Forward Caste, Lower Caste, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Untouchables (now known as the Dalits) etc..

Poona Pact(24 September 1932 AD)

In this pact, there were agreement between Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi at Yerwada Central Jail in Pune. And the pact get accent by the Government as an amendment to the Communal Award.

Provisions of the Pact:

• The Pact abandoned separate electorates for the depressed classes. But the seats reserved for the depressed classes were increased from 71 to 147 in provincial legislatures and 18 per cent of the total in the central legislature.

• Election to seats shall be by joint electorates subject, however, to the following procedure: All members of the Depressed Classes registered in the general electoral roll of a constituency will form an electoral college which will elect a panel of four candidates belonging to the Depressed Classes for each of such reserved seats by the method of the single vote and four persons getting the highest number of votes in such primary elections shall be the candidates for election by the general electorate.

• The system of primary election to a panel of candidates for election as before mentioned shall come to an end after the first ten years, unless terminated sooner by mutual agreement.

• The system of representation of Depressed Classes by reserved seats shall continue until determined otherwise by mutual agreement between the communities concerned.

• The Franchise of the Depressed Classes shall be as indicated, in the Lothian Committee (Indian Franchise Committee) Report.

• There shall be no disabilities attached to any one on the ground of his being a member of the Depressed Classes in regard to any election to local bodies or appointment to the public services. Every endeavour shall be made to secure a fair representation of the Depressed Classes in these respects.

• In every province out of the educational grant an adequate sum shall be ear-marked for providing educational facilities to the members of Depressed Classes.

August Offer

The Indian states committee appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Sir Harcourt Butler which was popularly known as ‘the Butler Committee’ to investigate and clarify the relationship between the paramount power and the Princely States in AD 1927.

The Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, issued a statement from Simla on 8 August 1940 in the response of when congress formally ask England to affirm its adherence to the goal of Independence for India which is popularly known August Offer.

Proposals of August’s Offer

• The establishment of an advisory war council

• After the war a representative Indian body would be set up to frame a constitution for India.

• Viceroy’s Executive Council would be expanded without delay.

• The minorities were assured that the government would not transfer power “to any system of government whose authority is directly denied by large and powerful elements in Indian national life.”

It was the first time; the inherent right of Indians was recognised through constitutional framing and Congress confessed for the formation of constituent assembly. The Congress rejected the August Offer. Nehru said, “Dominion status concept is dead as a door nail.” Gandhi said that the declaration had widened the gulf between the nationalists and the British rulers. The Muslim League was happy on the veto assurance and states that the solution of political deadlock was only the partition. In the context of widespread dissatisfaction that prevailed over the rejection of the demands made by the Congress, Gandhi at the meeting of the Congress Working Committee in Wardha revealed his plan to launch Individual Civil Disobedience.

Conclusion

August Offer formal statement issued by the Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, that laid the foundation of constitutional framing and Congress confessed for the formation of constituent assembly.

Individual Satyagraha

Individual Satyagarh was the resultant of August offer. It was started with the mass Civil Disobedience Movement but M.K Gandhi on Individual Satyagarh. This was movement for not only to seek independence but also to affirm the right of Speech. The demand of the Satyagrahi was using freedom of Speech against the war through an anti-war declaration. If government did not arrest the Satyagrahi, he or she will move repeating it in villages and start march towards Delhi (“Delhi Chalo Movement”).

Aims of individual Satyagraha

• To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness

• To express people’s feeling that they were not interested in the war and that they made no distinction between Nazism and the double autocracy that ruled India.

• To give another opportunity to the Government to accept Congress’s demands peacefully.

The demand of the Satyagrahi was using freedom of Speech against the war through an anti-war declaration. If government did not arrest the Satyagrahi, he or she will move repeating it in villages and start march towards Delhi (“Delhi Chalo Movement”).The centrepiece of Individual Satyagraha was non-violence which could be achieved only selecting the Satyagrahis. Acharya Vinoba Bhave, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Dutt were the first, second and third the selected Satyagarhi respectively.

Conclusion

Hence, Individual Satyagarh was the outcome of August Offer to adhere the taste of freedom and was movement for not only to seek independence but also to affirm the right of Speech.

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INM – TILL 1947

Cripps Mission

In early 1942, the war situation compelled the British to open talks with the Indian leaders. The British forces had suffered heavy defeats at the hands of the Japanese army in many countries of south-east Asia. The Japanese also conducted air raids on some parts of India. At this time Sir Stafford Cripps, a British minister, came to India to hold talks with Indian leaders. This is known as the Cripps mission. The talks, however, failed. The British were not willing to agree to the formation of a truly national government. They also tried to promote the interests of the princes. While they agreed to the demand for a constituent assembly, they insisted that the Indian states in the assembly would be represented by the nominees of the princes, and that the people of the states would have no representation on it.

Proposals of Cripps Mission

• An Indian Union with a dominion status; would be set up; it would be free to decide its relations with the Commonwealth and free to participate in the United Nations and other international bodies.

• After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.

• The British Government would accept the new constitution only on the following conditions :(a) any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and form a separate Union, and (b) the new constitution- making body and the British Government would negotiate a treaty to effect the transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.

• The post of governor-general’s would remain intact and defence of India would remain in British hands.

Conclusion

Hence, Mission was sent to seek the full support of Indian to the British in Second World War. So, Stafford Cripps returned home leaving behind a frustrated and embittered Indian people, who, though still sympathising with the victims of Fascist aggression, felt that the existing situation in the country had become intolerable and that the time had come for a final assault on imperialism.

Quit India Movement

In April 1942, the Cripps mission failed. Within less than four months, the third great mass struggle of the Indian people for freedom started. This struggle is known as the Quit India movement. On 8 August, 1942 at the Bombay session of All India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi during World War II passed a resolution of Quit India Movement.

This resolution declared that the immediate ending of the British rule in India was an urgent necessity for the sake of India and for the success of the cause of freedom and democracy, for which the countries of the United Nations were fighting against fascist Germany, Italy and Japan. The resolution called for the withdrawal of the British power from India. Once free, it said, India with all her resources would join the war on the side of those countries who were struggling against fascist and imperialist aggression.

Quit India Movement resolution

The resolution approved the starting of mass struggle on non-violent lines on the widest possible scale for the independence of the country. After the resolution was passed, Gandhi, in his speech said: “There is a mantra, a short one that I give you. You imprint it in your heart and let every breath of yours give an expression to it. The mantra is do or die. We shall either be free or die in the attempt”. “Quit India” and “Do or Die” became the battle cries of the Indian people during the Quit India movement.

In the early hours of the morning of 9 August 1942, most of the leaders of the congress were arrested. They were lodged in prisons in different parts of the country. The congress was banned. There were hartals and processions in every part of the country. The government let loose a reign of terror and there were firings, lathi charges and arrests throughout the country. People in their anger also took to violent activities. The people attacked government property, damaged railway lines and disrupted posts and telegraphs. There were clashes with the police at many places. The government imposed restrictions on the publication of news about the movement. Many newspapers decided to close down rather than submit to the restrictions.

By the end of 1942, about 60,000 people had been jailed and hundreds were killed. Among the killed were many young children and old women. In Tamluk, in Bengal, 73-year old Matangini Hazra, in Gohpur, in Assam, 13-year old Kanaklata Barua, in Patna, in Bihar, seven young students and hundreds of others were shot dead while taking part in processions. Some parts of the country such as Balia in U.P., Tamluk in Bengal, Satara in Maharashtra, Dharwar in Karnataka and Balasore and Talcher in Orissa, were free from the British rule and the people there formed their own governments. Revolutionary activities organized by Jai Prakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, S.M. Joshi, Ram Manohar Lohia and others continued almost throughout the period of the war.

The war years were a period of terrible suffering for the people of India. Besides the misery caused by the repression by British army and police, there was a terrible famine in Bengal in which about 30 lakh people died. The government showed little interest in providing relief to the starving people.

There is no doubt that “Quit India Movement”, united the Indian people against British rule. Although most of the demonstrations were suppressed by 1944. But after Gandhiji’s release in 1944 from the prison, he continued his protest and went on a 21-day fast. By the end of World War II, Britain’s position in the world had changed dramatically and the demand for independence could no longer be ignored.

Subhas Chandra Bose

Subash Chandra Bose was one of the most celebrated freedom fighter and charismatic influencer of the youth of India. His patriotism, call for freedom and obdurate refusal to stop before achieving the desired goal have made him a hero. Due to his nationalistic temperament and leadership attribute, Mahatama Gandhi was the first who addressed him as Netaji.

Subash Chandra Bose: Family history and early life

Netaji Subash Chandra Bose was born on 23 january, 1897 in Cuttack (Orissa) to Prabhavati Dutt Bose and Janakinath Bose. His father was successful lawyer in Cuttack and received the title of “Rai Bahadur”. He did his schooling from the Protestant European School (presently Stewart High School) in Cuttack, just like his siblings. He did baccalaureate from the Presidency College. He was influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna after reading their works at the age of 16. He then was sent by his parents to the University of Cambridge in England to prepare for the Indian Civil Service. In 1920 he passed the civil service examination, but in April 1921, after hearing of the nationalist turmoils in India, he resigned his candidacy and hurried back to India.

Subash Chandra Bose and Indian National Congress

He joined Non-Cooperation Movement which started by Mahatama Gandhi who made INC as a powerful non-violent organization. Duirng the movement, he was advise by the Matama Gandhi to work with Chitta Ranjan Das who became his politicla guru. After that he became a youth educator and commandant of the Bengal Congress volunteers. He started the newspaper ‘Swaraj’. In 1927, after being released from prison, Bose became general secretary of the Congress party and worked with Jawaharlal Nehru for independence.

In 1938 he was elected president of the Indian National Congress and formed a national planning committee, which formulated a policy of broad industrialization. However, this did not harmonize with Gandhian economic thought, which clung to the notion of cottage industries and benefiting from the use of the country’s own resources. Bose’s vindication came in 1939, when he defeated a Gandhian rival for reelection. Nonetheless, the “rebel president” felt bound to resign because of the lack of Gandhi’s support.

All India Forward Bloc was a left wing nationalist political party in India which emerged as a faction within the India Congress in 1939, led by Subhas Chandra Bose. Subash Chandra Bose was well known for his leftist views in the Congress. The prime objective of the Frowar Bloc was to bring all radical elements of the Congress party. So that he could spread the meaning of complete independence of India with adhrence of the application of principles of equality and social justice.

Subash Chandra Bose and Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauz

An important development in the struggle for freedom during the Second World War was the formation and activities of the Azad Hind Fauj, also known as the Indian National Army, or INA. Rash Behari Bose, an Indian revolutionary who had escaped from India and had been living in Japan for many years, set up the Indian independence league with the support of Indians living in the countries of south-east Asia.

When Japan defeated the British armies and occupied almost all the countries of south-East Asia, the league formed the Indian National Army from among the Indian prisoners of war with the aim of liberating India from the British rule. General Mohan Singh, who had been an officer in the British Indian army, played an important role in organizing this army.

In the meantime, Subhas Chandra Bose had escaped from India in 1941 and gone to Germany to work for India’s Independence. In 1943, he came to Singapore to lead the Indian Independence league and rebuild the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) to make it an effective instrument for the freedom of India. The Azad Hind Fauj comprised of about 45,000 soldiers, among who were Indian prisoners of war as well as Indians who were settled in various countries of south-east Asia.

On 21 October 1943, Subhas Bose, who was now popularly known as Netaji, proclaimed the formation of the provisional government of independent India (Azad Hind) in Singapore. Netaji went to the Andaman which had been occupied by the Japanese and hoisted there the flag of India. In early 1944, three units of the Azad Hind Fauj (INA) took part in the attack on the north-eastern parts of India to oust the British from India. According to Shah Nawaz Khan, one of the most prominent officers of the Azad Hind Fauj, the soldiers who had entered India laid themselves flat on the ground and passionately kissed the sacred soil of their motherland. However, the attempt to liberate India by the Azad Hind Fauj failed.

The Indian nationalist movement did not view the Japanese government as a friend of India. Its sympathies were with the people of those countries which had fallen victims to Japan’s aggression. Netaji, however, believed that with the help of the Azad Hind Fauj, supported by Japan, and a revolt inside India, the British rule over India could be ended. The Azad Hind Fauj, with the slogan of ‘Delhi Chalo’ and the salutation Jai Hind was a source of inspiration to Indians, inside and outside the country. Netaji rallied together the Indians of all religions and regions, living in south-east Asia, for the cause of India’s freedom.

Indian women also played an important role in the activities for the freedom of India. A women’s regiment of Azad Hind Fauj was formed, which was under the command of Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan. It was called the Rani Jhansi regiment. The Azad Hind Fauj became the symbol of unity and heroism to the people of India. Netaji, who had been one of the greatest leaders of India’s struggle for freedom, was reported killed in an air crash a few days after Japan had surrendered.

The Second World War ended in 1945 with the defeat of the fascist Germany and Italy. Millions of people were killed in the war. When the war was nearing its end and Italy and Germany had already been defeated, the U.S.A. dropped atom bombs on the two cities of Japan-Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Within a few moments, these cities were burnt to the ground and over 200,000 people were killed. Japan surrendered soon after this. Though the use of the atom bombs brought the war to a close, it led to new tensions in the world and to a new competition for making more and more deadly weapons which might destroy all mankind.

Rajagopalachari Formula (1944 AD)

Individual Satyagarh was the resultant of August offer. It was started with the mass Civil Disobedience Movement but M.K Gandhi on Individual Satyagarh. This was movement for not only to seek independence but also to affirm the right of Speech. The demand of the Satyagrahi was using freedom of Speech against the war through an anti-war declaration. If government did not arrest the Satyagrahi, he or she will move repeating it in villages and start march towards Delhi (“Delhi Chalo Movement”).

The objectives of Rajagopalachari Formula were to bridges between the Muslims League and Indian National Congress arises due to the difference of opinion on two nation theory and independence of India from British. C. Rajagopalachari was the veteran Congress leader, made a formula for the Indian National Congress and Muslim League cooperation to write off the political deadlock. Formula was supported by M.K Gandhi which was in reality, a silent acceptance of the League’s demand for Pakistan.

Rajagopalachari’s Formula

• Muslim League to support the demand for independence of Congress.

• League to cooperate with Congress in forming a provisional government at centre.

• At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in elections to be conducted in those areas (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage whether or not to form a separate sovereign state.

• All parties would be allowed to express their stand on the partition and their views before the voting or election.

• In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications, etc.

• The above terms to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.

Conclusion

The basic concepts of Rajagopalachari Formula was to engulf the gap between the Muslims League and Indian National Congress arises due to the difference of opinion on two nation theory and independence of India from British.

Desai – Liaquat Proposals (AD 1945)

M.K Gandhi convinced that the British rulers would not grant independence to India unless and until the Congress and Muslim League reach some conclusion on the future of the Country or the immediate formation of the Interim National Government. Hence, Gandhi directed Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai to make another attempt to appease the league leaders and find a way out of the 1942-45 political deadlocks.

Desai being the leader of the Congress in the Central Assembly and a friend of Liaquat Ali (Leader of Muslim League), met him in January 1945 gave him proposals for the formation of Interim Government at centre. After Desai’s declaration, Liaquat Ali published the list of an agreement which given below:

• Nomination of equal number of persons by both in the Central Executive.

• Representation of the minorities in particular of the Schedule caste and the Sikhs.

• The government was to be formed and was to function with the framework of the existing Government of India Act, 1935.

Conclusion

M.K Gandhi’s attempt to resolve the political deadlock by persuading Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai to make an attempt to appease the league leaders, but the proposal were not formally endorsed either by the Congress or the League.

Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference

Lord Wavell who had succeeded Lord Linlithgow as Governor-General in October, 1943, made a way out from the existing stalemate the deadlock in India. He went to England for consultations in March 1945. He broadcast to the people of India the proposals of the British Government to resolve the deadlock in India on 14th June which is called Wavell Plan. It is also known as Breakdown Plan.

• Formation of a new Executive Council at the centre in which all the members except the Viceroy and the Commander in Chief would be Indian.

• All portfolios except Defence were to be under the control of Indian members.

• In the Proposed Executive Council which was to have 14 members, the Muslims who constituted only about 25 % of the total population were given the right to be over represented by selecting 6 representatives.

The Congress while objecting the demand asserted its rights to select the representative of any community, including Muslims, as the Congress nominees to the Council.

Shimla Conference

• Lord Wavell invited a conference of 21 Indian Political leaders at the Summer Capital British India to discuss the provision of Wavell Plan.

• The Wavell Plan convened to agree for Indian self-government which incorporated separate representation to Muslims and reduced majority powers for both communities in their majority regions.

• Discussion was stuck at a point of selection of Muslim representatives. Jinnah said that no non-league Muslim should be represented to the Executive Council because only Muslim League has right to represent the Muslims of India whereas Congress said that they had no right to nominate any Muslim in the Executive council.

• Wavell had given place to 6 Muslims in the Executive Council of 14, and British had given it the power of Veto to any constitutional proposal which was not in its interest. But Muslims represented only 25% of Indian Population. Thus, these unreasonable demands were rejected by Congress. The Muslim league did not relent and Wavell dropped the plan.

Conclusion

Wavell Plan was constituted to resolve the political deadlock of existing India but he abandon the proposals due to disagreement between leaders of Muslim League and Congress, and finally the proposals were dissolved at the Shimla Conference.

Cabinet Mission Plan

On 22nd January 1946, the decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken and on 19th February 1946, the British PM C.R Attlee Government announced in the House of Lords about the mission and the plan to quit India. A high-powered mission of three British Cabinet members- Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A. V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty reached Delhi on 24th March 1946.

Proposals of Mission

• The Mission proposed to secure an agreement on the method of framing the Constitution to the discussions with elected representatives of British India and the Indian states on Preceding and preparing.

• Proposes to set up a constitution body

• Proposes to set up an Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties.

Purpose of the Mission

• To resolve political deadlock between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League at their stance to prevent a communal dispute whether British India would be better-off unified or divided.

• The Congress party wanted to obtain a strong central government with more powers as compared to state governments.

• All India Muslim League under Jinnah wanted to keep India united but with political safeguards provided to Muslims such as ‘guarantee’ of ‘parity’ in the legislatures.

• On 16 May 1946, this plan was announced and preceded by Shimla Conference of 1945.

Recommendations of Mission

• The unity of India had to be retained.

• It proposed a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that would control merely defence, the Foreign Affairs and the Commucation. The Union would have the powers necessary to raise the finances to manage these subjects.

• All subjects other than Union subjects and residuary power would vest in the provinces of British India.

• The Princely Legislatures would then elect a Constituent Assembly or a Constitution making body with each province being allotted a specified number of seats proportionate to its population.

• The proposed Constituent Assembly was to consist was to consist of 292 member from British India and 93 from Indian States.

• The Mission proposed an immediate formation of Interim Government at the centre, enjoying the support of major political parties and with the Indians holding all the portfolios.

Conclusion

The main objective of Cabinet Mission was to find out ways and means for the peaceful transfer of power in India, to suggest measures for the formation of a Constitution making machinery and also to set up the Interim Government.

Interim Government: First Government of Independent India

On 2nd September 1946, the newly-elected Constituent Assembly formed interim government of India which existed till 15th August 1947. The executive branch of the interim government was served by the viceroy’s executive council that was headed by the Viceroy of India. It was composed of 12 members including 3 Muslims nominated by the Congress. It was for the first time since the coming of British that the Government of India was in Indian’s hand. On 26th October, five nominees of the League joined the Government. Congress appointees redesigned to make room for the League nominees (Two seats were already vacant while Mr. Sarat Bose, Syed Ali Zahir and Sir Shafat Ahmed Khan resigned). The portfolios of the composite fourteen member government were as follows:

The Constituent Assembly of India: Features & its Committees

The Constituent Assembly was set up under the cabinet Mission plan on 16th May 1946. The members were elected by the Provincial assemblies by the method of single transferable vote system of proportional representations. The Constituent Assembly met for the time on 9th December 1946, in the library of the Council Chamber Delhi, and 205 members attended the meet. The League representatives and nominees of the Princely States abstained. On 11th December, the Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its permanent President.

Committees of the Constituent Assembly

• Committee on the Rules of Procedure; Steering Committee; Steering Committee; Finance and Staff Committee; Ad hoc Committee on the National Flag; – Rajendra Prasad

• Credential Committee: Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar

• House Committee: B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya

• Order of Business Committee: K.M. Munsi

• Committee on the Functions of the Constituent Assembly: G.V. Mavalankar

• States Committee; Union Powers Committee; Union Constitution Committee : Jawaharlal Nehru

• Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas – Vallabhbhai Patel

• Minorities Sub-Committee – H.C. Mukherjee

• Fundamental Rights: Sub-Committee – J.B. Kripalani

• North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded & Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee – Gopinath Bardoloi

• Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas (Other than those in Assam) Sub-Committee – A.V. Thakkar

• Drafting Committee – B.R. Ambedkar

Indian Independence Act 1947|Lord Mountbatten Plan

Lord Mountbatten came to India with an aspiration to the partition of India and the speedy transfer of responsibility, initially in the form of Dominion Status, to Indian Governments for the sections of a divided India.

Mountbatten Plan

On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the plan discussed below:

• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP (North-East Frontier Province) and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.

• There would be a separate constituent assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.

• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or ever remain independent.

• August 15, 1947, was date fixed for handling over power to India and Pakistan.

• The British Government passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

Partition and Indian Independence Act 1947

• All the political parties accepted the Mountbatten Plan.

• Two Commissions were appointed by the British Government with Sir Cyril Redcliff as chairmen of both to see through the partition and fix the international boundaries of the nations-to-be.

• At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big princely states in India.

• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used the iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the states, with few exceptions like Jammu & Kashmir, Hyderabad and Chunagarh had signed the Instruments of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

Conclusion

The Mountbatten Plan not only lay down the partition of India, but provides machinery for the areas affected by the Pakistan demand to choose, either through their Legislative Assembly representatives or through the referendum, between a single Constituent Assembly in accordance with the Cabinet Mission Plan, or a separate Constituent Assembly for a separate State. Hence, we can say that the main porpose of the Mountbatten Plan was the partition of India and the speedy transfer of responsibility, initially in the form of Dominion Status, to Indian Governments for the sections of a divided India.

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