Indian Climate

Content

1 Introduction

• Climate is an important element of the physical environment of mankind.
• It is the aggregate of atmospheric conditions (Weather) involving heat, moisture and air movement.
• India is multi-climatic zone country. 
• In a developing country like India climatic characteristics have a dominant role in affecting the economic pattern, way of life, mode of living, food preferences, costumes and even the behavioral responses of the people.
• Monsoon rains impact the health of the Indian economy; as Indian agriculture employs 600 million people and constitutes 20% of the national GDP, good monsoons correlate with a booming economy. Weak or failed monsoons (droughts) result in widespread agricultural losses and substantially hinder overall economic growth.
• In India despite a lot of scientific and technological developments our dependence on monsoon rainfall for carrying out successful agricultural activities, has not been minimized. 
• ? (1) The climate of India belongs to the ‘tropical monsoon type’ indicating the impact of its location in tropical belt and the monsoon winds. Although a sizeable part of the country lying north of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the northern temperate zone but the shutting effects of the Himalayas (2) and the existence of the Indian Ocean in the south have played significant role in giving

India a distinctive climatic characteristics. 

Following are the salient features of the Indian climate:

1.1 Reversal of winds

• The Indian climate is characterized by the complete reversal of wind system with the change of season in a year.
• ?During the winter season winds (3) generally blow from north-east to south-west in the direction of trade winds. These winds are dry, devoid of moisture and are characterized by low temperature and high pressure conditions over the country.
• ?During summer season (4) complete reversal in the direction of the winds is observed and these blow primarily from south-west to north-east.

1.2 Change in High and Low pressure areas over the land 

• There is a change in the atmosphere pressure conditions with the change of season.
• ?During winter season due to low temperature conditions high pressure areas is formed over the northern part (3) of the country.
• ?On the other hand the intense heating of the land during summer season leads to the formation of a thermally induced low pressure cell (4) over the north-western part of the country.
• These pressure areas control the direction and intensity of wind.

1.3 Seasonal and variable rainfall

• In India over 80 per cent of annual rainfall is obtained in the latter part of the summer whose duration ranges from 1-5 months in different parts of the country.
• Since the rainfall is in the form of heavy downpour, it creates problems of floods and soil erosion.
• Sometimes there is continuous rain for many days and sometimes there is a long spell of dry period.
• Similarly, there is a spatial variation in the general distribution of rainfall.
• Cherrapunji has received in a single day an amount equal to 10 years of rainfall at Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.

1.4 Plurality of seasons

• The Indian climate is characterized by constantly changing weather conditions.
• There are three main seasons but on broader consideration their number goes to six a year (winter, fall of winter, spring, summer, rainy and autumn).

1.5 Unity of Indian Climate

• The Himalayas and the associated mountain ranges extend to the north of India from east to west.
• These tall mountain ranges prevent the cold northerly winds of Central Asia from entering into India.
• Therefore, even the parts of India extending north of the Tropic of Cancer experience a tropical climate.
• These ranges force the monsoon winds to cause rainfall over India and the entire country comes under the influence of the monsoon winds.
• In this manner the climate in the entire country becomes monsoon type.

1.6 Diversity of Indian Climate

• In spite of the unity of Indian climate, it is characterized by regional differences and variations.
• For example, while in the summer the mercury occasionally touches 55°C in the western Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus 45°C in winter around Leh.
• These differences are visible in terms of winds, temperature, rainfall, humidity and aridity etc.
• These are caused by differences in the location, altitude, distance from the sea, distance from mountains and general relief conditions at difference places.

1.7 Characterized by natural calamities

• Due to its peculiar weather conditions especially rainfall the Indian climate is characterized by natural calamities like floods, droughts, famines and even epidemics.

2] Factors Determining the Climate of India ?️

India’s climate is controlled by a number of factors which can be broadly divided into two groups –

• Factors related to Location and Relief
• Factors related to air pressure and winds

2.1 Location and Relief

Latitude

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India in east-west direction.
• Thus, northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the part lying south of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone.
• The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout the year with small daily and annual range.
• Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, experiences extreme climate with high daily and annual range of temperature.

The Himalayan Mountains

• As already discussed, the lofty Himalayas in the north along with its extensions act as an effective climatic divide between central Asia and Indian subcontinent.
• The cold and chilly winds that originate near the Arctic Circle are obstructed by the Himalayas and give a distinctive taste to climate of India.

Distribution of Land and Water 

• India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in the south and girdled by a high and continuous mountain-wall in the north.
• As compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential heating of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and around the Indian subcontinent.

Distances from the Sea

• With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate.
• Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have extremes of climate. That is why, the people of the Konkan coast have hardly any idea of extremes of temperature and the seasonal rhythm of weather.
• On the other hand, the seasonal contrasts in weather at places in the interior of the country such as Kanpur and Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life.

Altitude 

• Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler than places on the plains.
• For example, Agra and Darjiling are located on the same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C whereas it is only 4°C in Darjiling.

Relief

• The physiography or relief of India also affects the temperature, air pressure, direction and speed of wind and the amount and distribution of rainfall.
• The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall during June-September whereas the southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the Western Ghats.

2.2 Air Pressure and Wind

Air pressure and wind system is different at different altitude which affects the local climates of India. Consider the following factors:

• Distribution of pressure and surface winds.
• Upper air circulation and the movement of different air masses and the jet stream.
• Rainfall caused by the westerly disturbances in winter and the tropical depressions in south-west monsoon season.

The mechanism of these three factors can be understood with reference to winter and summer seasons of the year separately.

3 Indian Monsoon

• We already know that India’s climate is ‘tropical monsoon’ type.
• The word ‘monsoon’ has been derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means ‘season’.
• Originally, this word was used by Arab traders to describe a system of seasonal reversal of winds along the shores of the Indian Ocean.
• Monsoons are especially prominent within the tropics on the eastern sides of the great landmass, but in Asia, it occurs outside the tropics in China, Korea and Japan.

Monsoon is a complex meteorological phenomenon. Experts of meteorology have developed a number of concepts about the origin of the monsoon. Some of the important concepts about the origin of monsoon have been given as under.

3.1 Origin of Indian Monsoon – Thermal Concept 

• Halley, a noted astronomer, hypothesized that the primary cause of the annual cycle of the Indian monsoon circulation was the differential heating effects of the land and the sea.
• According to this concept monsoon are the extended land breeze and sea breeze on a large scale.

During winter

• During winter (A3) the huge landmass of Asia cools more rapidly than the surrounding oceans with the result that a strong high pressure centre develops over the continent.
• On the other hand, the pressure over adjacent oceans is relatively lower.
• As a consequence the pressure gradient directed from land to sea.
• Therefore there is an outflow of air from the continental landmass towards the adjacent oceans so that it brings cold, dry air towards the low latitudes.

During Summer

• In summer (B4) the temperature and pressure conditions are reversed.
• Now, the huge landmass of Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low pressure centre.
• Moreover, the pole-ward shift of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a position over Southern Asia reinforces the thermally induced low pressure centre.
• The pressure over the adjacent oceans being high, a sea-to-land pressure gradient is established.
• The surface air flow is, therefore, from the highs over the oceans towards the lows over the heated land. The air that is attracted into the centers of low pressure from over the oceans is warm and moist.

Halley’s concept is criticized on following lines:

• It fails to explain the intricacies of monsoon such as sudden burst of monsoon, breaks in monsoon, spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon.
• The low pressure areas are not stationary. The rainfall is not only convectional but a mix of orographic, cyclonic and convectional rainfall.

3.2 Recent Concepts

After world war second, the upper atmospheric circulation has been studied significantly. It is now believed that the differential heating of sea and land alone can’t produce the monsoon circulation. Apart from it, recent concept of monsoon rely heavily on the role of

• Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as a physical barrier and a source of high-level heat.
• Circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
• Existence of upper air circum-polar whirl over north and south poles in the troposphere.
• The occurrence of ENSO (El-Nino and Southern Oscillation) in the South Pacific ocean.
• Walker cell in Indian Ocean.
• Indian Ocean Dipole.

3.2.1 Role of Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau

• In 1970s, it was found that Tibet plateau plays a crucial role in initiating the monsoon circulation.
• The plateau of Tibet extends over an area of about 4.5 million sq. km.
• The average height of these highlands is 4000 m.
• Due to its enormous height it receives 2-3^oC more insolation (B.1) than the neighboring areas.
• Because the Tibet Plateau is a source of heat for the atmosphere, it generates an area of rising air (convergence)(intense low pressure cell).
• During its ascent the air spreads outwards in upper troposphere (divergence) and gradually sinks (subsidence) over the equatorial part of the Indian Ocean.
• The plateau affects the atmosphere in two ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier, and (b) as a high- level heat sources.
• At the beginning of June the subtropical jet stream is completely withdrawn from India and occupies a position along 40° N (to the north of Tibetan Plateau).
• Heating of these areas leads to a clockwise air circulation in the middle troposphere and two-wind streams originate from this area.
• One of these wind streams blow southward and develops into the tropical easterly jet stream (4) (TEJ).
• The other stream blows in an opposite direction towards the North Pole and becomes the westerly jet stream over Central Asia. 
• As the plateau push the northward displacement of the jet stream. Hence the burst of monsoon in June is prompted by the Himalayas and not by the thermally induced low pressure cell over Tibet. (Tibetan plateau is responsible for south-west monsoons. But it is the STJ that facilitates sudden outburst of monsoons with its sudden northward migration).
• The winter Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly and produces a high pressure cell. (Cyclonic condition over Tibet ceases and an anticyclonic condition is established). The high pressure cell over Tibet strengthens N-E monsoons.

3.2.2 Role of Tropical Easterly Jet

• Tropical easterly jet stream (TEJ), that branch off from anticyclone developed over Tibet, sometimes reaches to the tip of Peninsular India. 
• The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
• This jet descends over the Indian Ocean and intensifies its high pressure cell known as Mascarene High.
• It is from this high pressure cell that the onshore winds start blowing towards the thermally induced low pressure area, developed in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent.
• After crossing the equator such winds become south-westerly and are known as the south-westerly summer monsoon.
• It is fairly persistent in its direction, and intensity from June through the beginning of October.
• TEJ flows from east to west over peninsular India at 6 – 9 km and over the Northern African region.
• Recent observations have revealed that the intensity and duration of heating of Tibetan Plateau has a direct bearing on the amount of rainfall in India by the monsoons.
• When the summer temperature of air over Tibet remains high for a sufficiently long time, it helps in strengthening the easterly jet and results in heavy rainfall in India.
• The easterly jet does not come into existence if the snow over the Tibet Plateau does not melt. This hampers the occurrence of rainfall in India.
• Therefore, any year of thick and widespread snow over Tibet will be followed by a year of weak monsoon and less rainfall.

   

3.2.3 Role of EL-Nino & southern oscillation

• The Indian monsoon is also influenced by EL-Nino, southern oscillation.
• We know that El Nino is the reversal of normal condition in the Pacific Ocean’s sea surface temperature.
• Though there is no direct correlation between bad monsoon and El Nino, but both are generally associated.
• There are years when India faced severe drought and those are not El Nino years and vice-versa.

El Nino

• Southern Oscillation is the see-saw pattern of atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western Pacific Ocean. The oscillation has a period varying from 2-7 years.
• It is measured with Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) by measuring pressure difference between two points in Pacific Ocean (Tahiti and Darwin).
• A negative value of SOI implies high pressure over north Indian Ocean during the winter season and a poor monsoon.

3.2.4 Role of Somalian current

• The Somalian current changes its direction of flow after every six months.
• During the Northeast Monsoon the Somali Current flows to the south-west, while during the South-West Monsoon it is a major western boundary current, comparable with the Gulf Stream.
• Normally, there remains a low pressure area along the eastern coast of Somalia.
• The progress of the southwest monsoon towards India is greatly aided by the onset of Somali jet that transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel.
• In exceptional years, after every six or seven years, the low pressure area in western Arabian Sea becomes a high pressure area. Such a pressure reversal results into a weaker monsoon in India.

3.2.5 Walker Cell

• It is observed that there is an east-west atmospheric circulation over the tropical oceanic regions.
• Such circulation in Pacific Ocean is generally called walker cell. However, many scientists use the term ‘walker cell’ for all east-west circulations in different oceans.
• Walker cell is associated with southern oscillation and its strength fluctuates with that of Southern Oscillation Index (SOI).
• With a high positive SOI, there would be a zone of low atmospheric pressure over Australia and Indonesian archipelago.
• The rising air from this region deflects in upper atmosphere in both directions towards Africa and South America.
• In Indian Ocean, the air descends down at high pressure zone from where surface winds blow as Southwest monsoon towards Indian sub-continent in summers.
• During La-Nina Indian ocean branch of walker cell get strengthen and surface winds are more intense.
• La-Nina condition is generally associated with good monsoon.
• During appearance of El-Nino or negative SOI, the ascending branch of the walker cell shifts to the central regions of the Pacific Ocean from west pacific region.
• In result, the Indian Ocean cell shifts towards east.
• The surface winds or Southwest monsoon winds are weaker than normal conditions.

3.2.6 Indian Ocean Dipole

• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) also known as the Indian Nino is a coupled Ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Indian Ocean.
• It is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
• The IOD involves a periodic oscillation of sea-surface temperatures (SST), between “positive”, “neutral” and “negative” phases.
• A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the western Indian Ocean region, with a corresponding cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean—which tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of Indonesia and Australia.
• The negative phase of the IOD brings about the opposite conditions, with warmer water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and cooler and drier conditions in the west.
• The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate, interacting with similar phenomena like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean.
• Positive and negative IOD both has been seen coupled with La Nina. Thus, there is no direct correlation between IOD and ENSO.
• The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over the Indian subcontinent. Positive IOD which is associated with warm sea-surface temperatures of western Indian Ocean is favourable for monsoon in Indian subcontinent. 

Indian Ocean Dipole

3.3 Nature of Indian Monsoon

Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region help to understand the salient features of the monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such as:

• Onset and advance of monsoon
• Rain-bearing systems and the relationship between their frequency and distribution of monsoon rainfall.
• Break in the monsoon
• retreat of the monsoon

3.3.1 Onset and Advance of Monsoon

• The differential heating of land and sea is still believed to be the primary cause of the monsoon by many meteorologists.
• Low pressure at ITCZ which is located over north India in month of May becomes so intense that it pulls the trade winds of the southern hemisphere northwards .
• These southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air circulation over India.
• Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in abundance.
• With the northwards shift of ITCZ, an easterly jet stream develops over 15^oN. 
• The rain in the south-west monsoon season begins rather abruptly. One result of the first rain is that it brings down the temperature substantially. This sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning, is often termed as the “break” or “burst” of the monsoons.
• Southwest monsoon first of all reaches in Andaman-Nicobar Islands on 15^th May. Kerala coast receives it on 1^st June. It reaches Mumbai and Kolkata between 10^th and 13^th June. By 15^th of July, Southwest monsoon covers whole of India. 

3.3.2 Rain Bearing Systems and Distribution of Rainfall

• The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch near the southernmost end of the Indian Peninsula.
• Hence, it arrives in India in two branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea Branch.
• First originate in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of north India.
• Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon which brings rain to the west coast of India.

Arabian Sea Branch.

The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea further split into three branches: 

• One branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These winds climb the slopes of the Western Ghats and as a result of orographic rainfall phenomenon, the windward side of Ghats receives very heavy rainfall ranging between 250 cm and 400 cm. After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds descend and get heated up. This reduces humidity in the winds. As a result, these winds cause little rainfall east of the Western Ghats. This region of low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
• Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon strikes the coast north of Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and Tapi river valleys, these winds cause rainfall in extensive areas of central India. The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm rainfall from this part of the branch. Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch.
• A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kutch. It then passes over west Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Bengal branch. These two branches, reinforced by each other, cause rains in the western Himalayas.
• The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is, however, related to two factors:
  • The offshore meteorological conditions.
  • The position of the equatorial jet stream along the eastern coast of Africa.
• Rajasthan desert receives low rainfall in spite of being in the path of Arabian Sea branch of monsoon. This branch blows parallel to Aravalis mountain chain without obstruction and thus, does not release moisture here.

Bay of Bengal branch

• The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of southeast Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent.
• The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction.
• From here, this branch splits into two under the influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest India.
• One branch moves westward along the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains.
• The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north and the northeast, causing widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest average annual rainfall in the world.
• The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because it is situated in rain shadow area of Arabian Sea branch of the south-west monsoon and lies parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of south-west monsoon.
• Frequency of tropical depressions originating over the Bay of Bengal varies from year to year. The path of these depressions also keeps changing with the position of the ITCZ, also known as monsoon trough . As the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates with the apparent movement of sun between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, there are fluctuations in the track and direction of these depressions, and the intensity and the amount of rainfall vary from year to year. The amount of rainfall in north India varies with the frequency of the tropical depressions. On an average, one to three depressions are observed every month and the life span of one depression is about one week. 
• The rain which comes in spells, displays a declining trend from west to east over the west coast, and from the southeast towards the northwest over the North Indian Plain and the northern part of the Peninsula. 

3.3.3 Break in the Monsoon

• During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
• These dry spells are quite common during the rainy season.
• These breaks in the different regions are due to different reasons:

1. 1. In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not very frequent along the monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
   2. Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds blow parallel to the coast.

3.3.4 Retreat of Monsoon

• Monsoon starts retreating in September.
• On the first of September it starts retreating from north-western part of India.
• This day is the last day of rainy season in Jaisalmer and Barmer in Rajasthan.
• By 15^th September, monsoon leaves Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• The area under the monsoon influence shrinks slowly and the monsoon retreats from all parts of India except the southern peninsular region.
• Monsoon winds in most parts of the country are replaced by the north-easterly trade winds.
• These winds blowing over the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture from there and cause rainfall in Tamil Nadu.

3.4 Features of Monsoon Rainfall

• Monsoon rain is seasonal in character which occurs between June and September.
• Spatial distribution of rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For instance the windward side of the Western Ghats registers a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the northeastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern Himalayas. Rainfall ranges from 20 cm in western Rajasthan to more than 400 cm in certain parts of Western Ghats and North-East India.
• The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea. Rainfall decreases from east to west in plains as one branch of monsoon enters from eastern side. Kolkata receives 119 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm only.
• Breaks (discussed above) in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions mainly formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and their crossing into the mainland. Besides the frequency and intensity of these depressions, the passage followed by them determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
• The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing great damage to standing crops and making the sowing of winter crops difficult.

3.5 Impact of Monsoons in India

• Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. It is because about 64 per cent people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based on southwest monsoon.
• Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperature above the threshold level to grow the crops or plants throughout the year.
• Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
• Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected mainly in areas where irrigation is not developed.
• Sudden monsoon burst creates problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.

1. The Polar Regions have a very cold climate. These places are sometimes called the Frigid Zones.
2. Thin air=> low pressure=> low temperature
3. For more details about jet stream, See document “INSOLATION, EARTH’S HEAT BALANCE, DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERIC…”
4. For more details about extra-tropical cyclones (known as western disturbances in Indian subcontinent), See document “INSOLATION, EARTH’S HEAT BALANCE, DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERIC…”

4. Seasons of India

India generally witnesses four types of seasons. During these seasons, substantial variations in temperature take place in the country. The different types of seasons experienced in India are as follows:

4.1 Winter

• Generally, the months of January and February are considered as the start of the winter season in the country.
• However, in some parts of north-western India, the season begins from December.
• Generally, the average temperature during this season is about 10-15°C in northwest regions.
• In the southeast region of mainland India, the average temperature is about 20-25°C.
• The western Himalayas, the extreme north-eastern parts and Kerala and Tamil Nadu, experience rains during this season.

4.2 Summer/Pre-monsoon/Thunderstorm/Hot Weather

• The country experiences this season from March till June.
• In the interior peninsular regions, the mean daily temperature is recorded at 30-35°C.
• The maximum temperature in the daytime in Central India crosses 40°C in many areas.
• In some regions, the temperature is high during daytime while in the nights, low temperature is recorded.
• The coastal areas of the country have mild temperature during this season due to the influence of land and sea breezes.
• Thunderstorms with rains and hail influence the weather in the land areas of the country.
• These thunderstorms are seen in the north-eastern and eastern parts of Bihar, Assam and West Bengal.
• In the plains of northwest India, hot and dry winds, along with dust winds, are frequently experienced.

4.3 Rainy/South-west Monsoon (WS Monsoon)

• The months from July to September are the most significant.
• The monsoon torrents supply about 75% of the total rainfall of the country during this season.
• The exact period of the SW monsoon in a region depends upon the onset and withdrawal time of the season.
• For instance, it remains in west Rajasthan for about 75 days while it stays for 120 days in the south-western regions of the country.
• The SW monsoon reaches in two branches: the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branch.
• The Arabian Sea branch extends towards the low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is about three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch.
• The northern hemispheric temperatures, El Nino, snow cover, sea surface temperature and many others are some of the local and global phenomena which influence the monsoons in the country.
• The SW starts to weaken by September 1 in Rajasthan and from September 15 in some north-western parts of the country.
• The monsoons in India are very important for the economy of the country as it affects agriculture which is the mainstay of a massive workforce of the nation.

4.5 Autumn/Post Monsoon/Northeast Monsoon/Retreating SW Monsoon

• This season prevails in the country from October to December.
• It is a transition season which is related to the establishment of the north-easterly wind regime over the subcontinent of the country.
• A large part of the country experiences cool, dry, and dense Central Asian air masses.
• Some parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh receive about 35% of their total rainfall during this season.
• A decline in the mean temperature from 38°C in October to 28°C in November takes place during this season.
• The characteristic features of this season include a decrease in humidity level and clear skies in most parts of the central and northern India.

5. Rainfall Distribution in India

Precipitation in India is irregular over the course of a year, with a well defined rainy season over most of the country starting in about June and ending in September. The average rainfall in India is 118 cm according to annual data from the Meteorological Department.

The following is the distribution of rainfall (H) in India:

• Extreme Precipitation regions: Northeastern regions and the windward side of the Western ghats experience an average of 400 cm of annual rainfall. Areas like Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and hilly tracts of the Western Ghats are host to tropical rainforests. The highest rainfall in India and the world is recorded at Mawsynram village of Meghalaya.
• Heavy Precipitation regions: The regions experiencing 200-300 cm rainfall belong to this zone. Most of Eastern India is covered under this zone. These regions are also home to tropical rainforests. States such as West Bengal, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur, Odisha and Bihar are included in this zone. Most of the areas in the sub-Himalayan belt also fall under this zone.
• Moderate Precipitation regions: Areas which experience 100 to 200 cm of rainfall include parts of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. Wet Deciduous forests comprise the most common natural vegetation of these regions.
• Scanty Precipitation regions: Areas having 50 to 100 cm of rainfall consisting of parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. Tropical Grasslands, Savannah and Dry Deciduous forests are commonly found in these areas.
• Desert and Semi-desert Regions: These are the areas that receive below 50 cm of rainfall. The states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and adjacent areas are classified as desert or semi-desert based on the amount of rainfall they receive. Some parts of Jammu & Kashmir such as the Ladakh plateau are also included in this zone as cold deserts. The vegetation consists of hardy species which can withstand extended droughts. Some areas like parts of Gujarat have Savannah vegetation in the wetter regions. The lowest rainfall in India has been recorded in Ruyli village, Rajasthan.

The rainfall distribution in India is impacted by the Thar Desert and the Himalayas. Temperature and pressure changes over the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the southern part of the Pacific Ocean also play a significant role in the monsoon rains over the country.

6. Climatic Regions of India

Classification of the Climatic Regions of India 

1. Koeppen’s Scheme (K):

• Koeppen’s scheme is based on the monthly values of temperature and precipitation. 
• Koeppen identified five major climatic types—tropical climates, dry climates, warm climates, snow climates and ice- climates.
• He used letter symbols A, B, C, D and E to denote these climatic types.
  • A- Tropical – The average temperature of the coldest month is 18° C or higher
  • B- Dry Climates – Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation.
  • C- Warm Temperate – The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C.
  • D- Cold Snow forest – The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below.
  • E- Cold Climates – Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10° C.
  • H- Highlands – Cold due to elevation
• These five types can be further subdivided into sub-types on the basis of seasonal variations in the distribution pattern of rainfall and temperature.
• The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w, and s.
  • f   – no dry season
  • m – Monsoon climate
  • w – Winter dry season
  • s  – Summer dry season

A-Tropical Humid Climate

1. Monsoon type with short dry season (Af) – Koeppen’s Amw type of climate prevails over the western coast of India, south of Goa.
2. Monsoon type with dry season in summers (As) – The as type characterised by dry summers is experienced along the Coromandel Coast.
3. Tropical savanna type (Aw) – Most of the peninsular plateau has tropical savanna type of climate (Aw).

B-Dry Climate

1. Subtropical Steppe – BSh – Low-latitude semi-arid or dry
2. Subtropical Desert – BWh – Low-latitude arid or dry
3. Mid-latitude Steppe – BSk – Mid-latitude semi-arid or dry
4. Mid-latitude Desert – BWk – Mid-latitude arid or dry

C-Warm temperate Climates

1. Humid subtropical – Cfa – No dry season
2. Mediterranean – Cs -Dry hot summer
3. Marine west coast – Cfb – No dry season, warm and cool summer

D – Cold Snow-forest Climates

1. Humid Continental Subarctic – Df – No dry season, severe winter
2. Humid Continental Subarctic – Dw  – Winter dry and very severe

E – Polar type (E) –  Kashmir and the adjoining- mountain ranges have a polar type of climate (E).

1. Tundra – ET – No true summer
2. Polar ice cap – EF – Perennial ice

H – highland – H – Highland with snow cover

7. Climate Change in India

India has questioned the rush at the United Nations (UN) to declare climate change an international security issue, potentially giving the Security Council the right to take action on it, and pointed out the pitfalls in the approach.

• According to India, A “mere decision of the Council” to take over enforcement of climate change action would disrupt the Paris Agreement and multilateral efforts to find solutions.
• Climate change is a global threat to security in the 21st century. We must act now to limit future risks to the planet we share and the peace we seek.

Evidence For Rapid Climate Change In India

• Global Temperature Rise: The planet’s average surface temperature has risen about 1.62 degrees Fahrenheit (0.9 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased carbon dioxide and other human-made emissions into the atmosphere. Most of the warming occurred in the past 35 years, with the five warmest years on record taking place since 2010.
• Warming Oceans: The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 700 meters (about 2,300 feet) of ocean showing warming of more than 0.4 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969.
• Shrinking Ice Sheets: The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost an average of 286 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and 2016, while Antarctica lost about 127 billion tons of ice per year during the same time period. The rate of Antarctica ice mass loss has tripled in the last decade.
• Glacial Retreat: Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa.
• Decreased Snow Cover: Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and that the snow is melting earlier.
• Sea Level Rise: Global sea level rose about 8 inches in the last century. The rate in the last two decades, however, is nearly double that of the last century and is accelerating slightly every year.
• Declining Arctic Sea Ice: Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several decades.
• Extreme Events: The number of record high-temperature events in the United States has been increasing, while the number of record low-temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950. The U.S. has also witnessed increasing numbers of intense rainfall events.
• Ocean Acidification: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent. This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the oceans. The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 billion tons per year.

Potential Effects of climate change in India

• Extreme Heat: India is already experiencing a warming climate. Unusual and unprecedented spells of hot weather are expected to occur far more frequently and cover much larger areas. Under 4°C warming, the west coast and southern India are projected to shift to new, high-temperature climatic regimes with significant impacts on agriculture.
• Changing Rainfall Patterns: A decline in monsoon rainfall since the 1950s has already been observed. A 2°C rise in the world’s average temperatures will make India’s summer monsoon highly unpredictable. At 4°C warming, an extremely wet monsoon that currently has a chance of occurring only once in 100 years is projected to occur every 10 years by the end of the century. Dry years are expected to be drier and wet years wetter.
• Droughts: Evidence indicates that parts of South Asia have become drier since the 1970s with an increase in the number of droughts. Droughts have major consequences. In 1987 and 2002-2003, droughts affected more than half of India’s crop area and led to a huge fall in crop production. Droughts are expected to be more frequent in some areas, especially in north-western India, Jharkhand, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh. Crop yields are expected to fall significantly because of extreme heat by the 2040s.
• Groundwater: Even without climate change, 15% of India’s groundwater resources are overexploited. Falling water tables can be expected to reduce further on account of increasing demand for water from a growing population, more affluent lifestyles, as well as from the services sector and industry.
• Glacier Melt: Most Himalayan glaciers have been retreating over the past century. At 2.5°C warming, melting glaciers and the loss of snow cover over the Himalayas are expected to threaten the stability and reliability of northern India’s primarily glacier-fed rivers. Alterations in the flows of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers could significantly impact irrigation, affecting the amount of food that can be produced in their basins as well as the livelihoods of millions of people
• Sea level rise: With India close to the equator, the sub-continent would see much higher rises in sea levels than higher latitudes. Sea-level rise and storm surges would lead to saltwater intrusion in the coastal areas, impacting agriculture, degrading groundwater quality, contaminating drinking water, and possibly causing a rise in diarrhoea cases and cholera outbreaks, as the cholera bacterium survives longer in saline water. Kolkata and Mumbai, both densely populated cities, are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of sea-level rise, tropical cyclones, and riverine flooding.
• Apart from this food and energy security are also major concerns. Water scarcity, health hazards among the masses, and migration and political conflicts are expected to grow.

India’s response to Climate Change

• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): outlines existing and future policies and programs addressing climate mitigation and adaptation. The Action Plan identifies eight core “national missions” running through to 2017: Solar Energy; Enhanced Energy Efficiency; Sustainable Habitat; Water; Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; Green India; Sustainable Agriculture; and Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change. Most of these missions have strong adaptation imperatives.
• National Clean Energy Fund: The Government of India created the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) in 2010 for financing and promoting clean energy initiatives and funding research in the area of clean energy in the country. The corpus of the fund is built by levying a cess of INR 50 (subsequently increased to INR 100 in 2014) per tonne of coal produced domestically or imported.
• Paris Agreement: Under the Paris Agreement, India has made three commitments. India’s greenhouse gas emission intensity of its GDP will be reduced by 33-35% below 2005 levels by 2030. Alongside, 40% of India’s power capacity would be based on non-fossil fuel sources. At the same time, India will create an additional ‘carbon sink’ of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of Co2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
• International Solar Alliance: ISA was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris on 30 November 2015 by India and France, in the presence of Mr. Ban Ki Moon, former Secretary-General of the United Nations.
• Bharat Stage (BS) Emission Norms: Emissions from vehicles are one of the top contributors to air pollution, which led the government at the time to introduce the BS 2000 (Bharat Stage 1) vehicle emission norms from April 2000, followed by BS-II in 2005. BS-III was implemented nationwide in 2010. However, in 2016, the government decided to meet the global best practices and leapfrog to BS-VI norms by skipping BS V altogether.

UPSC_Pre_MCQ

With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?[2017-I] 1.IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean. 2.An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a)1 only
Ans.(b)•The Hindu: Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an event which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the Indian ocean. So first statement is wrong. •A positive IOD leads to greater monsoon rainfall and more active (above normal rainfall) monsoon days while negative IOD leads to less rainfall and more monsoon break days (no rainfall). So yes, IOD can influence El Nino’s impact on Monsoon. So second statement is right. /br

The January isotherm taken as a basis for dividing India into tropical and subtropical zones is :[1997] (a)21°C (b)180°C (c)12°C (d)15°C
Ans (d)The January isotherm taken as a basis for dividing India into tropical and subtropical zones is 15°C.

The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of[2014 – I] (a)Equatorial climate (b)Mediterranean climate (c)Monsoon climate (d)All of the above climates
Ans (c)Monsoon is the only climate which is having reversal of wind between seasons.

          High temperature and low pressure over the Indian subcontinent during the summer season draws air from the Indian Ocean leading to the in-blowing of the:[1996] (a)South-east monsoon (b)South-west monsoon (c)Trade winds (d)Westerlies

Ans.(b)Due to intensive low pressure belt developed in the north-western plains, the south-west monsoon enters the Indian subcontinent. It blows from Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea.

          Assertion (A) : Anticyclonic conditions are formed in winter season when atmospheric pressure is high and air temperatures are low.

Reason (R) : Winter rainfall in northern India causes development of anticyclonic conditions with low temperatures.[2001]

(a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A (b)Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A (c)A is true but R is false (d)A is false but R is true

Ans (a)Both assertion and reasons are true and reason is correct explanation of assertion. In north India, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga valley from west and north west, which forms an anticyclonic condition in northern part of India.

          The average annual temperature of a meteorological station is 26°C, its average annual rainfall is 63 cm and the annual range temperature is 9°C. The station in question is :[2002] (a)Allahabad (b)Chennai (c)Cherrapunji (d)Kolkata
Ans.(b)The climatic condition of Chennai is tropical savanna type where the average annual temperature of meterological station is 26ºC and average rainfall is  63 cm and annual range temperature is 9ºC.

          Which one of the following is the correct sequence of Indian cities in the decreasing order, of their normal annual rainfall?[2005] (a)Kochi–Kolkata–Delhi–Patna (b)Kolkata–Kochi–Patna–Delhi (c)Kochi–Kolkata–Patna–Delhi (d)Kolkata–Kochi–Delhi–Patna
Ans.(c)The correct sequence of the given Indian cities in the decreasing order of their normal annual rainfall is Kochi (3228.3 mm) – Kolkata (1,582 mm) – Patna (1000 –1237 mm) – Delhi  (707 mm).

          Consider the following statements:[2009] 1.In the world, the tropical deserts occur along the western margins of continents within the trade wind belt. 2.In India, the east Himalayan region gets high rainfall from north-east winds. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 only (b)2 only (c)Both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2
Ans.(a)In India, the south-west monsoon causes high rainfall in east Himalayan region. 168.(d)Infant mortality rate indicates the number of infant  death under one years of age per 1000 live birth under one year of age.

          Consider the following statements :[2012 – I] 1.The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India. 2.The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only(b)2 only (c)Both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2
Ans.(c)Both statements are correct.

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Clouds


Atmosphere

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Natural vegetation

⚠️Attention 

• Plants major Species

1. Introduction

Our country India is one of the 12 mega bio-diversity countries of the world. With about 47,000 plant species India occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. There are about 15,000 flowering plants in India, which account for 6 per cent in the world’s total number of
flowering plants. The country has many nonflowering plants, such as ferns, algae and fungi. India also has approximately 90,000 species of animals, as well as, a rich variety of fish in its fresh and marine waters. Natural vegetation refers to a plant community, which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as a virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.

(Source:NCERT)

2. Factors of Vegetation

Land

Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. Vegetation changes from one landform type to another. The nature of land influences the type of vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted to agriculture. The undulating and rough terrains are areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wildlife.

Soil

The soils also vary over space. Different types of soils provide basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes, while wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees.

CLIMATE

Temperature

The character and extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along with humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the fall in the temperature affects the types of vegetation and its growth, and changes it from tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine vegetation.

Photoperiod (Sunlight )

The variation in duration of sunlight at different places is due to differences in latitude, altitude, season and duration of the day. Due to longer duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer.

Precipitation

In India, almost the entire rainfall is brought in by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to September) and retreating northeast monsoons. Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to areas of less rainfall.

Significance of Forests

• Forests are renewable resources and play a major role in enhancing the quality of environment.
• They modify local climate, control soil erosion, regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries, provide livelihood for many communities and offer panoramic or scenic view for recreation.
• They control wind force and temperature and cause rains. They provide humus to the soil and shelter to the wildlife.

3. Types of  Vegetation

The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country (Figure 5.3).

• Tropical Evergreen Forests
• Tropical Deciduous Forests
• Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
• Montane Forests
• Mangrove Forests

3.1 Tropical Evergreen Forests

• These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the island groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast. They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
• Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds — trees, shrubs and creepers giving it a multi-layered structure. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves. As such, these forests appear green all the year round.
• Plants – Some of the commercially important trees of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
• Animals – The common animals found in these forests are elephant, monkey, lemur and deer. Onehorned rhinoceroses are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these animals, plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are also found in these jungles.

3.2 Tropical Deciduous Forests

• These are the most widespread forests of India. They are also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this forest type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
• On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous.

3.2.1 Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

• The former is found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm. These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the eastern part of the country — northeastern states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
• Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun and mulberry are other commercially important species.

3.2.2 Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

• The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm.
• These forests are found in the rainier parts of the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
• There are open stretches, in which teak, sal, peepal and neem grow. A large part of this region has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for grazing.
• In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises are also found here.

3.3 The Thorn Forests and Scrubs

• In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and bushes.
• This type of vegetation is found in the north-western part of the country, including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species.
• Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture.
• The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimise evaporation.
• These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas.
• In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.

3.4 Montane Forests

• In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation. As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we see from the tropical to the tundra region. The wet temperate type of forests are found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres.
• Evergreen broad-leaf trees, such as oaks and chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests containing coniferous trees, like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are found. These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north-east India. At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
• At high altitudes, generally, more than 3,600 metres above the sea level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation. Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.
• However, they get progressively stunted as they approach the snow-line. Ultimately, through shrubs and scrubs, they merge into the Alpine grasslands. These are usedextensively for grazing by nomadic tribes, like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals. At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation.
• The common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.

3.5 Mangrove Forests

• The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts.
• Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water.
• The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetation.
• In the Ganga- Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber. Palm, coconut, keora, agar, etc., also grow in some parts of the delta.
• Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.

Recent Forest Reports

India State Forest Report – 2017

• India’s tree and forest cover has registered an increase of 1% or 8021 sq km in two years since 2015, according to the latest assessment by the government.
• India has shown an increasing trend in the forest and tree cover as against the global trend of decreasing forest cover during the last decade.
• According to the report the total forest cover is 7,08,273 sq km, which is 2154% of the total geographical area of the country Forest and tree cover combined is 802,088 sq km or 2439% of the total geographical area.
• Latest assessment that very dense forest in India has also increased by 136% as compared to 2015 ISFR is released every two years.

• Latest assessment that very dense forest in India has also increased by 136% as compared to 2015 ISFR is released every two years
• There is an increase of 8,021 sq km [about 8020 million hectare] in the total forest and tree cover of the country, compared to the previous assessment in 2015
• The increase in the forest cover has been observed as 6,778 sq km and that of tree cover as 1,243 sq km
• Much of the increase in forest cover has been observed in very dense forest (VDF) category as they absorb maximum carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

The increase in forest cover in VÐF is followed by increase in open forest.

• Madhya Pradesh (77.414 sq. km) has the largest forest cover in the country in terms of area, followed by Arunachal Pradesh (66.964 sq. km) and Chhattisgarh (55,547 sq. km).
• In terms of percentage of forest cover with respect to the total geographical area. Lakshadweep with (90.33%) has the highest forest cover, followed by Mizoram (86.27%) and Andaman and Nicobar Island (81.73%).

• The top five States where maximum forest cover has increased are-

• Andhra Pradesh (2,141 sq. km),
• Karnataka(l,I0l sq. km),
• Kerala (1,043 sq. km),
• Odisha (885 sq. km)
• Telangana (565 sq. km)

• The five States where forest cover has decreased most are-

• Mizoram (531 sq. kin),
• Nagaland (450 sq. km),
• Arunachal Pradesh (190 sq. km).
• Tripura (164 sq. km) and
• Meghalaya (116 sq. km).

Out of these States and UTs. Mizoram, Lakshadweep. Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Arunachal Pradesh. Nagaland. Meghalaya and Manipur have more than 75% forest cover, while eight — Tripura, Goa, Sikkim, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Chhattisgarh and Assam have forest cover between 33% and 75%.

India is ranked 10th in the world, with 24.4% of land area under forest and tree cover, even though it accounts for 2.4% of the world’s surface area and sustains the needs of 17% of human and 18% livestock population.

India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2019

The Ministry for Environment, Forests and Climate Change has released the India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2019.

• ISFR is a biennial publication of Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change.
• The ISFR assesses the forest and tree cover, bamboo resources, carbon stock and forest fires.
• The 2019 report for the first time has assessed the qualitative nature of the forest cover, including listing its biodiversity and the type of plants and trees found.
• It also created a national forest inventory for the first time on produce from forests.

Key Findings

Forest Cover

• Forest Cover (Area-wise) : Madhya Pradesh> Arunachal Pradesh> Chhattisgarh> Odisha> Maharashtra.
• Forest Cover (Percentage): Mizoram (85.4%)> Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%)> Meghalaya (76.33%)

Increase in Forest Cover

• The country’s forest cover includes all patches of land with a tree canopy density of more than 10% and more than 1 hectare in area, irrespective of land use, ownership and species of trees.
• The total forest cover of the country is 7,12,249 sq km which is 21.67% of the geographical area of the country.
• The top five states to have shown an increase in forest cover include Karnataka (1,025 sq km) > Andhra Pradesh (990 sq km) > Kerala (823 sq km) > J&K (371 sq km) > Himachal Pradesh (334 sq km).

Decline of Forest Cover in North Eastern Region

• Total forest cover in the North Eastern region is 1,70,541 sq km, which is 65.05% of its geographical area.
• There has been a decrease of forest cover to the extent of 765 sq km (0.45%) in the region. Except Assam and Tripura, all the States in the region show decrease in forest cover.

Forest Cover in Tribal Districts

• The total forest cover in the tribal districts is 4,22,351 sq km, which is 37.54% of the geographical area of these districts.
• There has been a decrease of 741 sq km of forest cover within the Recorded Forest Area/ Green Wash (RFA/GW) in the tribal districts and an increase of 1,922 sq km outside.
• There has been a decline in tree cover inside forests due to tribal populations getting “land titles” (patta) and there has been a rise in trees outside the forest area due to an increase in tree plantation and afforestation activities.

Increase in the tree cover

• Tree cover comprises of tree patches of size less than 1 hectare occurring outside the recorded forest area.
• The tree cover of the country is estimated as 95,027 sq km which is 2.89% of the geographical area.
• Maharashtra has had the highest increase in tree cover and a large part of that is due to horticulture.

In comparison to 2017

• The 2019 survey has found an increase of 5,188 sq km in total forest and tree cover in the country.
• Tree and forest cover together made up 24.56% (8,07,276 sq km) of India’s area. In the last assessment it was 24.39%.
• The nation’s tree and forest cover has largely hovered from 21-25% and is short of the National Forest Policy, 1988, which envisages 33% to be under such cover

Mangrove cover in the country has increased by 54 sq km (1.10%) as compared to the previous assessment.

Carbon Stock

• The total carbon stock of the country was estimated at 7124 million tons, which is an increase of 42.6 million tons from the last assessment.
• It implies that India is on the right track to achieve its Paris Agreement commitment of 2.5 -3 billion carbon sinks.

Wetlands

• The total number of wetlands located within the RFA/GW is 8.13%.
• Amongst the States, Gujarat has the largest area of wetlands within RFA in the country followed by West Bengal.

Forest Produce

• Dependence of fuelwood on forests is the highest in the State of Maharashtra, whereas, for fodder, small timber and bamboo, dependence is highest in Madhya Pradesh.
• The analysis reveals that 21.40% of the forest cover of the country is highly to extremely fire prone.

National Forest Policies

The first Forest Policy adopted by British Colonial Government in 1894 aimed at a custodial and timber-oriented management.
The post-independence Forest Policy of 1952 recommended that 33% of the area of the country be brought under forest cover.

National Forest Policy, 1988

• The policy aims at maintaining of environmental stability.
• It looks at conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural forests.
• Increasing forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.
• Creating a massive people’s movement for achieving these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests.

Indian Forest Act, 1927

This Act recognizes forest dwellers’ rights and makes conservation more accountable.
The Act basically does two things:
1. Grants legal recognition to the rights of traditional forest dwelling communities, partially correcting the injustice caused by the forest laws, and
2. Makes a beginning towards giving communities and the public a voice in forest and wildlife conservation.

The law recognizes three types of rights

Land Rights: Land rights are given to people, who have been cultivating land prior to December, 13, 2005.
Use Rights: The law provides for rights to use and/or collect the minor forest produce things like tendu patta, herbs, medicinal plants etc “that has been traditionally collected, use of grazing grounds and water bodies and use of traditional areas by nomadic or pastoralist communities i.e. communities that move with their herds, as opposed to practicing settled agriculture.
Right to Protect and Conserve: The law gives rights to protect and manage the forests to people of village communities.

The Act also categorizes forests into three categories:

Reserve forest: These forests are the most restricted forests and may be constituted by the State Government on any forest land or waste land which is the property of the Government or on which the Government has proprietary rights. In reserved forests, most uses by local people are prohibited, unless specifically allowed by a Forest Officer in the course of settlement.
Protected forest: The State Government is empowered to constitute any land other than reserved forests as protected forests over which the Government has proprietary rights. Under ‘Protected Forests’, the Government retains the power to issue rules regarding the use of such forests and retains the power to reserve the specific tree species in the protected forests. This power has been used to establish State control over trees, whose timber, fruit or other non-wood products have revenue-raising potential.
Village forest: ‘Village forests’ are the one in which the State Government may assign to ‘any village community the rights of Government to or over any land which has been constituted a reserved forest’.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

First Forest Act was enacted in 1927.
Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental degradation, Center Government enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act in1980.
It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produces and the duty liveable on timber and other forest produce.
Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government is required for diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Center on these approvals.
The Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely reserved forests, village forests, protected forests and private forests.
Reserved forest – A state may declare forestlands or waste lands as reserved forest and may sell the produce from these forests.
Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is punishable with a fine or imprisonment, or both Village forests
Reserved forests assigned to a village community are called village forests.
Protected forests – The state governments are empowered to designate protected forests and may prohibit the felling of trees, quarrying and the removal of forest produce from these forests.
The preservation of protected forests is enforced through rules, licenses and criminal prosecutions.

Present Status

Reserved forests: These forests are under direct Government and no public entry is allowed for collection of timber or grazing of cattle. About 54% of total forest area is designated as Reserved Forests.
Protected Forests: These forests are offer by government but local people are allowed to collect fuel wood/timber and graze their cattle without causing serious damage to the forests. These occupy 29% of total forest area.
Unclassified Forests: These are those forests where there is restriction on cutting of tree and cattle grazing, they have an area of 18%.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund

The Union Environment Ministry has transferred ₹47,436 crore to 27 States for afforestation. The funds are long-pending dues, part of the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF), that has been collected for nearly a decade as environmental compensation from industry.

The funds transferred are in addition to State Budget. The centre expects that states will utilize the funds towards forestry activities to achieve the objectives of the Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDCs) of increasing forest & tree cover.
The Fund will be used as per provisions of the CAF Act and Rules.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund

The CAF Act was passed by the centre in 2016 and the related rules were notified in 2018.
The CAF Act was enacted to manage the funds collected for compensatory afforestation which till then was managed by ad hoc Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA).
Compensatory afforestation means that every time forest land is diverted for non-forest purposes such as mining or industry, the user agency pays for planting forests over an equal area of non-forest land, or when such land is not available, twice the area of degraded forest land.
As per the rules, 90% of the CAF money is to be given to the states while 10% is to be retained by the Centre.
The funds can be used for treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training and awareness generation, supply of wood saving devices and allied activities.

Social Forestry

Social forestry refers to the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. The term was first used in India in 1976 by the National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India. The basic objective social forestry is to raising plantations by the common man so as to meet the growing demand for timber, fuel wood, fodder, etc, thereby reducing the pressure on the traditional forest area. This concept of village forests to meet the needs of the rural people is not new. It has existed through the centuries all over the country but it was now given a new nomenclature.

Objective of Social Forestry

• Improve the environment for protecting agriculture from adverse climatic factors,
• Increase the supply of fuel wood for domestic use, small timber for rural housing, fodder for livestock, and minor forest produce for local industries,
• Increase the natural beauty of the landscape; create recreational forests for the benefit of rural and urban population,
• Provide jobs for unskilled workers
• Reclaim wastelands. Finally, its object is to raise the standard of living and quality of life of the rural and urban people.

Components of Social Forestry

• Urban Forestry: It aimed bringing trees to the door of the urban people. It advocates on the beautification of house, roads and vacant lands as also creation of tree reserves, in town and cities. Moreover, it stress on the aesthetic development of urban areas.
• Rural Forestry: It envisages on the plantations of multi-utility of trees at the certain distance in arrow according to the crops is done under agro-forestry.
• Farm Forestry: In farm forestry farmers are given incentives by the government and encouraged to plant trees on their own farms. A farmer needs fire wood for cooking and agricultural implements, fodder for cattle and manure for his fields. By planting suitable species of trees on his land, the farmer can, to a large extent be self-sufficient with regard to these essential needs and there can even be surplus for sale. With an appropriate choice of tree species and the adoption of scientific silvicultural practice, the farmer can considerably argument his income, without adversely affecting the agriculture.

UPSC_Pre_MCQ

          The alpine vegetation in the Western Himalayas is found only up to a height of 3000 metres while in the Eastern Himalayas it is found up to a height of 4000 metres. The reason for this variation in the same mountain range is that:[1995] (a)Eastern Himalayas are higher than Western Himalayas (b)Eastern Himalayas as are nearer to the equator and sea coast than the Western Himalayas (c)Eastern Himalayas get more monsoon rainfall than the Western Himalayas (d)Eastern Himalayan rocks are more fertile than the Western Himalayan rocks

Ans.(c)The alpine vegetation in eastern himalayas is found upto 4000 meters because in eastern himalayas the monsoon rainfall is higher than western Himalayas.

          “Monoculture of commercially viable trees is destroying the unique natural profile. Thoughtless exploitation of timber, deforesting vast tracts for palm cultivation, destruction of mangroves, illegal logging by tribals and poaching only compounds the problem. Fresh water pockets are fast drying up due to deforestation and destruction of mangroves”. The place referred to this quotation is : [1995] (a)Sundarban  (b)Kerala coast  (c)Orissa coast (d)Andaman and Nicobar Island

Ans.(a)The quotation referred to Sundarban of West Bengal. Sundarban is famous for mangrove forest and tiger population. It is present at the delta region of Ganga. Sundarban is world’s largest delta.

          Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched? (a)Teak: Jammu and Kashmir     [1997] (b)Deodar: Madhya Pradesh (c)Sandalwood: Kerala (d)Sundari : West Bengal.

Ans.(d)Sundari tree is found in Sundarban area of West Bengal. Sundarban is a largest wetland area in the world. Sundarban got its name itself due to abundance of ‘Sundari’ tree in this area.

          The discovery of Oak flora in 1966 added a new chapter to the history of Indian Sericulture. Which one of the following states is the leading producer of Oak tasar silk ?[1998] (a)Assam (b)Bihar (c)Manipur (d)Orissa

Ans.(a)The Oak Tasar silk is produced in Assam, which is used in Sericulture. The Oak flora was discovered in 1966 in Assam.

          Open stunted forests with bushes and small trees having long roots and sharp thorns or sharp thorns or spines are commonly found in :[2002] (a)Eastern Orissa (b)North-Eastern Tamil Nadu (c)Shivalik and Terai region (d)Western Andhra Pradesh
Ans (d)Open stunted forests with bushes and small trees having long roots and sharp thorns or spines are commonly found in the area where the rainfall is less than 80 cm. Such areas are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and western Andhra Pradesh.

          Match List-I (Mangrove) with List-II (State) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:    [2002] List-I (Mangrove)List-II (State) A.Achra Ratnagiri 1.Karnataka B.Coondapur2.Kerala C.Pichavaram3.Andhra Pradesh D.Vembanad4. Maharashtra 5. Tamil Nadu Codes: (a)A-2; B-1; C-5; D-4 (b)A-4; B-5; C-3; D-2 (c)A-2; B-5; C-3; D-4 (d)A-4; B-1; C-5; D-2

Ans.(d)Achra Ratnagiri Mangrove is in Maharashtra, Coondapur Mangrove is in Karnataka, Pichavaram Mangrove is in Tamil Nadu and Vembanad  Mangrove is in Kerala.

          Which one of the following is not essentially a species of the Himalayan vegetation?[2008] (a)Juniper (b)Mahogany (c)Islver fir (d)Spruce
Ans.(b)Mahogany is a species of tree found throughout the Caribbean, central and south America but not in Himalayas.

          With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs:[2010] Mineral90% Natural sources in 1.Copper……Jharkhand 2.Nickel……Orissa 3.Tungsten……Kerala Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a)1 and 2 only (b)2 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(b)

          In India, which type of forest among the following occupies the largest area?[2010] (a)Montane Wet Temperate Forest (b)Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forest (c)Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest (d)Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest
Ans.(c)In India tropical moist deciduous forest occupies the largest area. It includes Deccan plateau, the north eastern region of Deccan plateau and the lower slopes of Himalayas and covers the part of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Kerala. In India, tropical moist deciduous forest covers 38% of the total forest area. It covers the region of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,  Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Kerala.

          If you travel through the Himalayas, you are likely to see which of the following plants naturally growing there?[2014 – I] 1.Oak 2.Rhododendron 3.Sandalwood Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a)1 and 2 only (b)3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(a)Oak and Rhododendron is found in Himalayan region while sandalwood is found in South India.

          210.Consider the following States [2015-I] 1.Arunachal Pradesh 2.Himachal Pradesh 3.Mizoram In which of the above States do ‘Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests’ occur? (a)1 only (b)2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(c)Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests are found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Island and on the eastern and western slopes of the Western Ghats in such states as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra.

          which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest?[2015-I] (a)North Coastal Andhra Pradesh (b)South-West Bengal (c)Southern Saurashtra (d)Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Ans. (d)Andaman and Nicobar Islands is rich in  biodiversity. Different types of forests as Tropical Evergreen forests, Moist Deciduous forests, Mangrove forests, Littoral forests are found here.

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Protected Areas

⚠️ Attention

• Location of Protected area

1. Wildlife status of India

• India is home to a large variety of wildlife. It is a biodiversity hotspot with its various ecosystems ranging from the Himalayas in the north to the evergreen rain forests in the south, the sands of the west to the marshy mangroves of the east. India lies within the Indomalayan realm ?.
• India  the home to about 7.6% of mammal, 14.7% of amphibian, 6% of bird, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering plant species.
• India’s forest lands nurture about 500 species of mammals and 2000+ bird species.
• India is one of the most biodiverse regions of the world and contains three of the world’s 36 biodiversity hotspots – the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the Indo-Burma hotspot.
• It is one of the seventeen megadiverse countries.
• The country has seven Natural World Heritage sites, eleven Biosphere Reserves in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and thirty seven Ramsar Wetlands.
• In response to decrease in the numbers of wild animals, human encroachment and poaching activities, the government of India established a system of national parks and protected areas in 1935, which was subsequently expanded.
• In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat. Further, federal protections were promulgated in the 1980s.
• India has about 2,714 endemic Lichen species. In 2020, the Lichen Park in India was developed by the Uttarakhand Forest Department in Munsiyari.

2. Critically Endangered Animal Species of India

• Among the classification of threatened species, the category Critically Endangered corresponds to the greatest risk.
• In India, there are 70+ critically endangered animals and 60+ critically endangered plants. 300+ animals fall under the category of endangered while 140+ plants fall under the category of endangered.  
• This post is a detailed list of the critically endangered animal species in India.
• These include mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, fishes, corals and so on. 

When is a species considered critically endangered?

Critically endangered is the highest risk category assigned by the IUCN (International  Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List to wild species. There are five quantitative criteria to determine whether a taxon is threatened. A taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the following criteria:

1. Populations have declined or will decrease, by greater than 80% over the last 10 years or three generations.
2. Have a restricted geographical range.
3. Small population size of less than 250 individuals and continuing decline at 25% in 3 years or one generation.
4. Very small or restricted population of fewer than 50 mature individuals.
5. High probability of extinction in the wild.

Critically Endangered Animal Species of India

The Critically Endangered list includes 10 mammals, 15 birds, 6 reptiles, 19 species of amphibians, 14 fishes etc.

Critically Endangered Mammals

1. Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania).
2. Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)
3. Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi)
4. Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica)
5. Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)
6. Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira)
7. Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)
8. Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
9. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
10. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Critically Endangered Birds

According   to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list of birds, the information contained in the IUCN Red list version 2013.2 indicates that 15 species of birds from India are critically endangered.

Critically endangered birds in India under a different classification can be grouped as:

1. Migratory Wetland Species – Baer’s Pochard (Aythya baeri), Siberian Crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus), Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus)
2. Non-migratory Wetland Species – White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis)
3. Grassland Species – Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), Jerdon’s Courser(Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius)
4. Forest Species – Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti)
5. Scavengers – Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus), Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris), White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis).
6. Practically extinct – Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa), Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea)

Extra note : In the lower risk categories, the agency included 14 bird species as Endangered and 51 as vulnerable ones. In the latest list, two birds – the River Lapwing and River Tern – that were listed as species of least concern have been registered as near threatened. A third bird, the long-tailed duck, which has been sighted in India on a few occasions, has moved from ‘least concern’ to ‘vulnerable’ on the red list.

Critically Endangered Reptiles

1. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
2. Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
3. Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
4. Four-toed River Terrapin or River Terrapin (Batagur baska)
5. Red-crowned Roofed Turtle or the Bengal Roof Turtle (Batagur kachuga)
6. Sispara day gecko (Cnemaspis sisparensis)

Critically Endangered Amphibians

1. Anamalai Flying Frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus)
2. Gundia Indian Frog (Indirana gundia)
3. Kerala Indian Frog (Indirana phrynoderma)
4. Charles Darwin’s Frog (Ingerana charlesdarwini)
5. Kottigehar Bubble-nest Frog (Micrixalus kottigeharensis)
6. Amboli Bush Frog (Pseudophilautus amboli)
7. Chalazodes Bubble-Nest Frog (Raorchestes chalazodes)
8. Small Bush Frog (Raorchestes chotta)
9. Green-eyed Bush Frog (Raorchestes chlorosomma)
10. Griet Bush Frog (Raorchestes griet)
11. Kaikatt’s Bush Frog (Raorchestes kaikatti)
12. Mark’s Bush Frog (Raorchestes marki)
13. Munnar Bush Frog (Raorchestes munnarensis)
14. Large Ponmudi Bush Frog (Raorchestes ponmudi)
15. Resplendent Shrub Frog (Raorchestes resplendens)
16. Sacred Grove Bush frog (Raorchestes sanctisilvaticus)
17. Sushil’s Bush Frog (Raorchestes sushili)
18. Shillong Bubble-nest Frog (Raorchestes shillongensis)
19. Tiger toad (Xanthophryne tigerinus)

Critically Endangered Fishes

1. Pondicherry Shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon)
2. Ganges Shark (Glyphis gangeticus)
3. Knife-tooth Sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata)
4. Large-tooth Sawfish (Pristis microdon)
5. Long-comb Sawfish or Narrow-snout Sawfish (Pristis zijsron)

Critically Endangered Corals

1. Fire corals (Millepora boschmai)

Critically Endangered Spiders

1. Rameshwaram Ornamental or Rameshwaram Parachute Spider (Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica)
2. Gooty Tarantula, Metallic Tarantula or Peacock Tarantula (Poecilotheria metallica

3. National Parks (NPs)

• According to the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, a national park is an area, whether within a sanctuary or not, can be notified by the state government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment.
• No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972″.

Following area the Characteristics of National Park

1.Reserve area of land, owned by the government.
2. Area is protected from human exploitation, industrialization and pollution.
3. No cutting, Grazing allowed, Outside Species Allowed
4. It came under the category called “Protected Areas”. The Protected Areas are declared under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
5. Conservation of ‘wild nature’ for posterity and as a symbol of national pride.
6. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and its World Commission on Protected Areas, has defined its Category II type of protected areas.

National Parks in India

• Total No. -104 (2018)
• Area – 40501.03 km²
• Percent of Geographical area – 1.23%
• National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas.
• India’s first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand.
• By 1970, India only had five national parks.
• In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species.
• Further federal legislation strengthening protection for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s.

4. Biosphere Reserves

• A biosphere reserve is a ecosystem with plants and animals of unusual scientific and natural interest.
• It is a label given by UNESCO to help protect the sites.
• The plan is to promote management, research and education in ecosystem conservation.
• This includes the ‘sustainable use of natural resources’.
• If, for example, fish or trees are taken for human use, this is done in ways which least damage the ecosystem.
• The program is run by UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program.
• It has started a World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
• The MAB program has built up the World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 1971.
• Biosphere reserves, exchange knowledge and experiences on new ideas for sustainable development.

 Following is the Criteria for designation of Biosphere reserves

• The Indian government has established 18 biosphere reserves in India,(categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks or preserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some economic uses.

• Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. Animals are protected and saved here.

Following 11 of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.

5. Wet Lands/ Ramsar Sites

• A wetland is a place where the land is covered by water. Marshes, ponds, the edge of a lake/ocean, the delta at the mouth of a river, low-lying areas that frequently flood — all of these are wetlands.
• Wetlands of international importance are also known as Ramsar sites.
• Ramsar is a city in Iran. In 1971, an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands was signed at Ramsar. The Convention’s mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world”.
• Today, the Ramsar List is the world’s largest network of protected areas.
• There are currently over 2,300 Ramsar Sites around the world. They cover over 2.5 million square kilometres, an area larger than Mexico.
• The world’s first Site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974.
• The largest Sites are Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Queen Maud Gulf in Canada; these Sites each cover over 60,000 square kilometres.
• The countries with the most Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
• Bolivia has the largest area with 148,000 km2 under Ramsar protection.

Latest Updates

1. Four new sites have been added to the list of Ramsar Sites in India in August 2021. These are:
   • Sultanpur National Park – Gurugram, Haryana
   • Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary – Jhajjar, Haryana
   • Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary – Near Ahmedabad, Gujarat
   • Wadhvana Wetland – Vadodara, Gujarat
2. In 2020, the following sites were added to the Ramsar Sites of India List:
   • December 2020 – The Tso Kar Wetland Complex was added to the list of Ramsar sites in India. This includes the high-altitude wetland complex of two connected lakes, Startsapuk Tso and Tso Kar, in Ladakh.
   • November 2020 – Maharashtra – Lonar Lake
   • November 2020 – Agra (Uttar Pradesh) – Sur Sarovar also called, Keetham Lake
   • November 2020 – Uttarakhand – Asan Barrage
   • July 2020 – Bihar – Kanwar Lake or Kabal Taal
   • February 2020 – Kolkata – Sunderban Reserve Forest (Sunderban Wetlands)
3. 2nd February 2021 marked the 50th anniversary of the Ramsar Convention, the day which is also celebrated as World Wetlands Day. India on this occasion established the Centre for Wetland Conservation & Management which is the first in the country. It is set up under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), at the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM) in Chennai.
4. Sambhar Lake had been in the news for its deterioration over salt mining. Sambhar Lake is a Ramsar Site in India.

List of Ramsar Sites in India

6. Wildlife Sanctuaries

• Wildlife comprises animals, birds, and insects living in forests.

• With large regional variations in physiography, climate and edaphic types. Indian forests offer a wide range of habitat types, which is responsible for a large variety of wild life in India.

• The Government of India enacted Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 with the objective of effectively protecting.
• The Act was amended in January 2003 and punishment and penalty for offences under the Act.

• The one-horned rhinoceros, India’s second largest mammal was once found throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far west as Rajasthan. The number of this mammal has drastically decreased and now there are less than 1,500 rhinoceros in India, confined to the restricted locations in Assam and West Bengal.

• Rhinoceros are protected in Kaziranga and Manas sanctuaries of Assam and the Jaldapara sanctuary of West Bengal.

• The wild buffalo is found in Assam and in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.

• The gain or the Indian bison is one of the largest existing bovine and is found in the forests of Central India.

• There are about 3,000 tigers in India mainly found in the forests of eastern Himalayan foothills and in parts of the peninsular India.

• The number of Cheetahs had fallen to less than two hundred until successful breeding programme in the Gir sanctuary in Gujarat resulted in some recovery.

• The arboreal clouded leopard is found in northern Assam while the Black Panther is widely distributed predator.

• Brown, Black and Sloth Bear are found at high altitudes in the northwestern and central Himalayas.

• Yak, the ox of snows is largely found in Ladakh and is tamed to be used as a draught animal.

• Stag or barasingha is found in Assam and Madhya Pradesh.

• The Munjac or barking deer are found extensively in the lower wooded slopes of the Himalayas and in the forests of southern India.

• The kastura or the musk deer, much sought after for its musk pod, live in the birch woods in the higher forests of the Himalayas.

• 1936, the first National Park in India was created and named as Hailey National Park now called jim corbett (Uttarakhand).

• Thamin is a pretty deer found in Manipur.

• India is extremely rich in bird life. There are about 2,000 species of birds in India.

• Although most of the bird has their origin in India, a number of them have their source in other areas. Some birds such as ducks, cranes, swallows, ant flycatchers migrate from central Asia to the wetlands of Bharatpur every winter Recently, some migratory birds have been seen near Mathura.

• Wildlife sanctuaries of India are classified as IUCN Category IV protected areas. Between 1936 and 2016, 543 wildlife sanctuaries were established in the country that cover 118,918 km2 (45,914 sq mi) as of 2017.

• Among these, the 50 tiger reserves are governed by Project Tiger, and are of special significance for the conservation of the Bengal tiger.

• Major wild life sanctuaries are given below:

7. International Conventions

1. Ramsar Convention

• It is called the Convention on Wetlands.
• It was adopted in the city of Iran, Ramsar in 1971.
• It came into force in 1975.

2. Stockholm Convention

• It is a convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• It was adopted in 2001 in Geneva, Switzerland.
• It came into force in 2004.

3. CITES

• It is a convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
• It was adopted in 1963.
• It came into force in 1975.

4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• It is a convention for the conservation of biological diversity.
• It was adopted in 1992.
• It came into force in 1993.
• Read more about the Convention on Biological Diversity at the linked article.

5. Bonn Convention

• It is a convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
• It was adopted in 1979.
• It came into force in 1983.

6. Vienna Convention

• It is a convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer.
• It was adopted in 1985.
• It came into force in 1988.

7. Montreal Protocol

• It is an international environment protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer.
• It was adopted in 1987.
• It came into force in 1989.

8. Kyoto Protocol

• It is an international protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• It was adopted in 1997.
• It came into force in 2005.

9. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

• It is an international environmental treaty governing actions to combat climate change through adaptation and mitigation efforts directed at control of emission of GreenHouse Gases (GHGs) that cause global warming.
• It was adopted in 1992.
• It came into force in 1994.

10. Rio Summit

• It is a United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.
• It was held in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

11. UNCCD

• It is a United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
• It was adopted in 1994.
• It came into force in 1996.

12. Basel Convention

• It is a convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.
• It was adopted in 1989.
• It came into force in 1992.

13. Cartagena Protocol

• It is an international environmental protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• It was adopted in 2000.
• It came into force in 2003.

14. UN-REDD

• It is a United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation.
• It was created in 2008.

15. Nagoya Protocol

• It is an international environment protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• It was adopted in 2010.
• It came into force in 2014.

16. COP24

• It is the 24th meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• It took place in 2018.

17. COP21

• It is the 21st meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• It took place in 2018.

18. Kigali Agreement

• It is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.
• It was adopted in 2016.
• It came into force in 2019.

19. Minamata Convention

• It is an international environmental treaty intended to protect health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury.
• It was adopted in 2013.
• It came into force in 2017.

20. Rotterdam Convention

• It is an international environmental convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
• It was adopted in 1998.
• It came into force in 2004.

21. COP25

• It is the 25th meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• It took place in 2019.

8. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

IUCN is a membership Union composed of both government and civil society organisations. It harnesses the experience, resources and reach of its more than 1,400 Member organisations and the input of more than 18,000 experts. This diversity and vast expertise makes IUCN the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.

Protected Area Categories

IUCN protected area management categories classify protected areas according to their management objectives. The categories are recognised by international bodies such as the United Nations and by many national governments as the global standard for defining and recording protected areas and as such are increasingly being incorporated into government legislation.

Ia Strict Nature Reserve: Category Ia are strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphical features, where human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values. Such protected areas can serve as indispensable reference areas for scientific research and monitoring  

Ib Wilderness Area: Category Ib protected areas are usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and influence without permanent or significant human habitation, which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition. 

II National Park: Category II protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible, spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities. 

III Natural Monument or Feature: Category III protected areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value. 

IV Habitat/Species Management Area: Category IV protected areas aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects this priority. Many Category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but this is not a requirement of the category. 

V Protected Landscape/ Seascape: A protected area where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant, ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value: and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values.

VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources: Category VI protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems. They are generally large, with most of the area in a natural condition, where a proportion is under sustainable natural resource management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural resources compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area.

9. Tiger Reserve

• India is one of the thirteen tiger range countries and has the largest number of source sites with wild tigers.
• The Indian government has always made Tiger protection a priority and project Tiger launched in the early seventies, has put the endangered tiger on a definite path to recovery.

Project Tiger

• The Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Project Tiger’ was launched in 1973 with the objective to ensure maintenance of a viable population of tigers in India for scientific, economic aesthetic, cultural and ecological values, and to preserve for all times areas of biological importance as a national heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people.
• The Indian strategy is to focus on tiger areas as the ‘core areas’.
• Efforts are underway to mainstream the concerns of tiger in the landscape Surroundings such source sites through restorative actions, while providing livelihood Options to the people to reduce their dependency on forests.
• Objective of National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is to ‘provide statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives becomes legal in its new avatar as NTCA, the Project strives to streamline scientific modules of conservation and ca-opt communities as responsible stakeholders.
• From the 9 Tiger reserves in 1973, it expanded to 50 tiger reserves in 2016.
• Use of Radio – telemetry study.
• Core-buffer corridor strategy, while the core area of a tiger reserve is managed for wildlife observation, the buffer is treated as a multiple use zone

Tiger, Leopard and Elephant population by state

There are 50 tiger reserves in India which are governed by Project Tiger which is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA). India is home to 70 percent of tigers in the world. In 2006, there were 1,411 tigers which increased to 1,706 in 2010 and 2,226 in 2014.The total number of wild tigers has risen to 3,890 in 2016 according to World Wildlife Fund and Global Tiger Forum.

By the year 2012, according to the National Tiger Conservation Authority, there were estimated only 1,411 tigers in existence in India. The 2010 National Tiger Assessment estimated the total population of tigers in India at 1,706. As per Ministry of Environment and Forests, the tiger population in India stood at 2,226 in 2014 with an increase of 30.5% since the 2010 estimate.

The reserves were categorized into four major categories. Karnataka has the highest number of tigers in the age group of 1.5 years with more than 408 big cats. Other states with significant populations included Uttarakhand (340), Madhya Pradesh (308), Tamil Nadu (229), Maharashtra (190), Assam (167), Kerala (136) and Uttar Pradesh (117).

10. Reserved/Protected forests of India

Reserved forests

• A reserved forest (also called reserve forest) or a protected forest in India are terms denoting forests accorded a certain degree of protection.

• The term was first introduced in the Indian Forest Act, 1927 in British India, to refer to certain forests granted protection under the British crown in British India, but not associated suzerainties.

• After Indian independence, the Government of India retained the status of the existing reserved and protected forests, as well as incorporating new reserved and protected forests.

• A large number of forests which came under the jurisdiction of the Government of India during the political integration of India were initially granted such protection.

• The first Reserve Forest of India was Satpura National Park. Land rights to forests declared to be Reserved forests or Protected forests are typically acquired (if not already owned) and owned by the Government of India.

• Unlike national parks of India or wildlife sanctuaries of India, reserved forests and protected forests are declared by the respective state governments. At present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way: Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise. In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products.

Protected Forests

• Protected forests are of two kinds – demarcated protected forests and undemarcated protected forests, based on whether the limits of the forest have been specified by a formal notification.
• Typically, protected forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which is turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding. For example, Sariska National Park was declared a reserved forest in 1955, upgraded to the status of a wildlife sanctuary in 1958, becoming a Tiger Reserve in 1978.
• Sariska became a national park in 1992, though primary notification to declare it as a national park was issued as early as 1982.

Conservation reserves and community reserves of India

• Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India. Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities, and community areas if part of the lands are privately owned. Administration of such reserves would be through local people and local agencies like the gram panchayat, as in the case of communal forests.

• Community reserves are the first instances of private land being accorded protection under the Indian legislature. It opens up the possibility of communally owned for-profit wildlife resorts, and also causes privately held areas under non-profit organizations like land trusts to be given protection.

• These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2003 the amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. These categories were added because of reduced protection in and around existing or proposed protected areas due to private ownership of land, and land use. A case in point was the Melghat Tiger Reserve where a large area was left unprotected due to private ownership.

• Amendments to the Wild life protection act in 2003, provided a mechanism for recognition and legal backing to the community initiated efforts in wildlife protection. It provides a flexible system to achieve wildlife conservation without compromising community needs. Tiruvidaimarudur Conservation Reserve, declared on February 14, 2005, is the First Conservation Reserve to be established in the country. It is an effort of a village community who wanted to protect the birds nesting in their village.

• These categories roughly correspond to IUCN Category V (conservation reserves) and VI (community reserves) protected areas.

• Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve near Thirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu, declared in 2005, is the first Conservation Reserve in the country.[3]

• In 2012, Rajasthan government in India declared “Jawai Bandh forests” as a conservation reserve forest. Jawai Bandh forest is situated in Pali district and it is in close proximity of Kumbalgarh. Sanctuary.keshopur chamb gurdaspur (Punjab) conservation reserve India’s first community reserve. Keshopur chamb,Gurdaspur (Punjab) is India’s first community reserve.

Private protected areas of India

• Private protected areas of India refer to protected areas inside India whose land rights are owned by an individual or a corporation / organization, and where the habitat and resident species are offered some kind of protection from exploitative activities like hunting, logging, etc. The Government of India did not provide any legal or physical protection to such entities, but in an important amendment introduced by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002, has agreed to protect communally owned areas of ecological value.

• Private ownership

• In pre-British India, and erstwhile British India and associated suzerainties, large tracts of wilderness were under private ownership, typically under the ownership of the royal families of the suzerainties. Animals and habitat in these tracts were protected by royal decree and royal forces. Later, after the advent of the British, these lands were protected by personal guards of the royal families.

• However, these lands were usually used as hunting grounds for the maharajahs and other noble families, so while the animals and habitat were accorded protection from external entities, hunting for sport by the owners of the land was commonly practised. Even so, some of such hunting was done on a sustainable basis, and some wildlife like the Asiatic cheetah were trained to hunt in such hunting grounds.

• After independence, the political integration of India caused most of the royal families to lose their ownership rights to these lands, and these were converted into reserved forests, wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. Some of India’s most famous protected areas had their origins in privately owned protected lands. Some of these are listed below.

From the Northern princely states

Dachigam National Park – Once the private hunting preserve of the Maharaja of Kashmir Hari Singh, it was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1951 after the accession of Kashmir, and was designated a national park in 1981.

From the Western princely states

• Gir National Park – These were the private hunting grounds of the Nawab of Junagadh, who by royal decree banned the hunting of the increasingly rare Asiatic lion in 1900. It was only in 1966 that the region was protected as the Gir Forest Area, and the region received national park status in 1975.

• Ranthambhore National Park – The area around the Ranthambhore Fort were the private hunting grounds of Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II of Jaipur. After integration with India, the Government of India declared the region Sawai Madhopur Game Sanctuary in 1955, making it a Project Tiger reserve in 1973, and a national park in 1980

• Keoladeo National Park – These were the private hunting grounds of Maharaja Brijendra Singh of Bharatpur. Upon joining the Union of India, the maharaja kept his hunting privileges at the grounds until 1971, when it was declared a wildlife sanctuary. It was upgraded to the status of a national park in 1982.

• Sariska National Park – Sariska was the private hunting grounds of Maharaja Jai Singh of Alwar. It was given the status of a reserved forest in 1955 and became a wildlife sanctuary in 1958, before becoming a national park in 1992.

• Darrah National Park – These were the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Kota, and were declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 after the merger of Kota with India, and combined with two other sanctuaries a national park in 2004.

From the Central princely states

• Bandhavgarh National Park – The area around the overgrown Bandhavgarh Fort were the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Rewa. After the union of Rewa with India, the maharaja still retained hunting rights to the area until 1968, when the Maharaja handed over the hunting grounds (with the exception of the fort) to be declared a national park. A special permit is still required to visit the fort.

• Madhav National Park – The area around Shivpuri were the private hunting grounds of the Scindia royal family of Gwalior. Upon accession to India, the grounds were designated to be Madhya Bharat National Park (1959), later being renamed to Shivpuri National Park and finally to Madhav National Park.

From the Southern princely states

• Periyar National Park – The region around the Periyar lake was fashioned as a private game sanctuary by the maharaja of Travancore to stop the encroachment of tea plantations. Founded as Nellikkampatty Game Sanctuary in 1934, it was consolidated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1950 after the political integration of India, and designated as a national park in 1982.

• Bandipur National Park – These were private hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Mysore. In 1930, Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV declared Bandipur a game reserve of 80 km2, and in 1941 expanded it to 800 km2, reinventing it as Venugopala Wildlife Park. After the Kingdom of Mysore joined India, the park was made a Project Tiger reserve in 1973, and a national park in 1985.

• Rajiv Gandhi National Park – Nagarhole (as it was called initially) and its surrounding regions were the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Mysore. After the merger of Mysore with India, Nagarhole first became a wildlife sanctuary in 1955, and later became a national park in 1988.

• Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park – This region was the private hunting ground of the Nizam of Hyderabad. After the annexure of Hyderabad in 1956, it was wildlife sanctuary in 1975, and a national park in 1994.

From the Eastern princely states

• Simlipal National Park – Initially a hunting ground for the Maharajas of Mayurbhanj. After the merger of Mayurbhanj with India in 1949, it became a reserved forest in 1956. It then became a tiger reserve (1973), wildlife sanctuary (1979), national park (1980) and finally a biosphere reserve (1994).

• Manas National Park – The area was initially the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Cooch Behar and the Raja of Gauripur. It was declared a protected area – Manas Sanctuary, as early as 1928, but the hunting rights of the royal families were not revoked. The sanctuary finally turned fully protected when it became a tiger reserve in 1973, and a national park in 1990.

However, royal families were allowed to keep personal land holdings below a certain threshold area, and hence some small scale privately held protected areas still exist in India.

Non-profit ownership

The biggest non-profit private organization which acquires wilderness tracts for development into private protected areas, the Nature Conservancy – does not operate in India, but has shown interest in expanding its operations to the country.

The World Land Trust, another non-profit organization, in partnership with the Wildlife Trust of India has funded two significant privately owned protected land holdings in India. The purpose of the holdings are to provide migration corridors to herds of Indian elephants,and the corresponding project is called the Wild Lands Corridor. The two corridors are:

• The Siju-Rewak corridor in the Garo Hills in the state of Meghalaya, for connection between the Siju Wildlife Sanctuary and the Rewak Reserved Forest. This is one of only four forded corridors across the Simsang River, which bisects the Garo Hills. This region also contains large omnivores and carnivores like the Bengal tiger, clouded leopard and the Himalayan black bear.

• The Tirunelli-Kudrakote corridor in the state of Kerala between the Tirunelli Reserved Forest and the Kudrakote Reserved Forest acts as a migration corridor for India’s largest extant elephant population. The region is part of the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot which is home to the Nilgiri tahr, Salim Ali’s fruit bat and 13 endemic bird species including the Malabar parakeet. The trust is in the process of reallocation of villages in the corridor, and is planning to register the corridor as a reserved forest once reallocation is complete, so that standard government protection is obtained.

The introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could be used for obtaining state protection in non-profit privately held lands of ecological value. 

9. Conservation areas of India

Conservation Areas in India refer to well-demarcated large geographical entities with an established conservation plan, and were part of a joint Indo-US project on “landscape management and protection”. The project ran from 1996 to 2002. These areas are home to many Conservation reliant species.

Four Conservation Areas were selected for this project:

• Annamalai Conservation Area in Tamil Nadu

• Garo Hills Conservation Area in Meghalaya

• Satpura Conservation Area in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra

• Terai Conservation Area in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand

The primary goal was to develop experience in “landscape protection” – protection of large geographical entities as a whole, only parts of which may be under federal control and protection. Each of the conservation areas contained fully protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, managed resources like reserved forests and communal forests, as well as privately held land. The size of the selected regions constituted more than one forest division, and in one case was spread over two states

9. Endangered Species Projects

Project Tiger

• The sort of India has taken a pioneering initiative for consuming tiger by launching the ‘Project Tiger’ is 1973.
• India is home to 70% of tigers in the world. In 2014, there were 2,226 tigers.
• Statewise, Karnataka has the highest number of tigers (406) followed by 340 in Uttarakhand, 308 in Madhya Pradesh, 229 in Tamil Nadu.
• The project tiger aims to foster as exclusives tiger agenda in the core area of tiger reserves, which an inclusive people oriented agenda in the buffer.
• The largest tiger reserve is the Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam tiger reserve of Andhra Pradesh which covers the area of 3538 km2.

Project Elephant

• Project elephant, a centrally sponsored scheme was launched in February 1992 to provide surgical and technical support to major elephant bearing states in the country for protection of elephants, their habitats and corridor. The project is being implemented in 13 states/UT’s viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunchal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karanataka, Kerala Meghlaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamilnadu, Utttranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal There are 28 notified elephant reserve in India cover ing approximately 60,00089 km area.
• The Singhbhum Elephant Reserve, the first Elephant Reserve of India was created in 2001 under the Elephant project in Jhark hand.
• India’s first exclusive hospital for Elephant will come up in Kerala.
• Project Snow Leopard: This project was lunched to safe guard and conserve India’s unique natural habitats of high altitude wildlife population and their habitats by promoting conservation through participatory policies and actions. This project was drifted by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India. It was launched in January There are nearly 750 snow leopards in the country
• Memorandum of Understanding (Mou) or Siberian Crane: This memorandum came into effect 1st July, 1993 and was amended is January 1999. This memorandum was focuses on conserving the siberian crane as one of these rarest crane species. India had signed the MOU on 13th Dec. 1998. Siberian crane are migratory visitors to India in winter season.
• Mou for Marine Twotle: Major threats to marine turtle include unexceptionable exploitation, distinction of resting and feeding habitats and incidental morality is fishing operations. The objectives of this memorandum are conservation and management of Marine turtles and their habitats. India had signed this memorandom on 20 february, 2007.
• MOU for Dugong: The dugong is a seagrass dependent marine’s mammal of tropical and subtropical coastal water. The dugong are vuinarable to human related influences due to their life history. Dugong is commonly known as sea cow. In India, these are found is Indian waters. From Gujarat to Andaman and Nicobar islands India had signed mou for Dugong on 28 May, 2008.

The minimum land area recommended for forest cover to maintain proper ecological balance in India is : (a)25% (b)33% [1999] (c)43% (d)53%
Ans.(b)For proper ecological balance 33% of forest land is recommended, but in India we have only 20.14% of forest coverage.
The first marine sanctuary in India, within its bounds coral reefs, mollusca, dolphins, tortoises and various kinds of sea birds, has been established in:[1999] (a)Sundarbans (b)Chilka Lake (c)Gulf of Kutch (d)Lakshadweep
Ans.(c)Gulf of Kutch in 1980, 270 km from Obha to Sadiya.
The sea coast of which one of the following states has become famous as a nesting place for the giant Olive Ridley turtles from South America?[2002] (a)Goa (b)Gujarat (c)Orissa (d)Tamil Nadu
Ans.(c)The sea coast of Orissa is famous as a nesting place for giant olive Ridley turtles from South America.
Match List I (National Park/Sanctuary) with List II (State) and select the correct answer using the codes given below:[2004] List-IList-II A Kanger Ghati National 1.Chhattisgarh Park B.Nagerhole National2.Haryana Park C.Kugti Wildlife Sanctuary3.Himachal Pradesh D.Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary4.Karnataka Codes : (a)A-3; B-2; C-1; D-4 (b)A-1; B-4; C-3; D-2 (c)A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2 (d)A-1; B-2; C-3; D-4
Ans.(b)National Park/ Sanctuary A.Kanger Ghati National Park-Chhattisgarh B.Nagerhole National Park-Karnataka C.Kugti Wildlife Sanctuary-Himachal Pradesh D.Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary-Haryana
Match List-I (Biosphere Reserve) with List-II (States) and select the correct answer using the codes given below:[2004] List-IList-II A.Similipal1.Sikkim B.Dehong Deband2.Uttaranchal C.Nokrek3.Arunachal Pradesh D.Kanchenjunga4.Orissa 5.Meghalaya Codes: (a)A-1; B-3; C-5; D-4 (b)A-4; B-5; C -2; D-1 (c)A-1; B-5; C-2; D-4 (d)A-4; B-3; C-5; D-1
Ans.(d)Similipal biosphere reserve is in Orissa. Dehong Deband biosphere reserve is in Arunachal Pradesh, Nokrek biosphere reserve is in Meghalaya and Kanchenjunga biosphere reserve is situated in Sikkim.
Amongst the following Indian States which one has the minimum total forest cover?[2004] (a) Sikkim(b)Goa (c)Haryana (d)Kerala
Ans.(c)Haryana has 6.83% of area is forest cover area of the total land coverage, whereas Sikkim has 36%, 38.5% in Goa and 28.9% of Kerala has forest area of their total land mass.
Consider the following statements:[2005] 1.The forest cover in India constitutes around 20% of its geographical area. Out of the total forest cover, dense forest constitutes around 40%. 2.The National Forestry Action Programme aims at bringing one third of the area of India under tree forest cover. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 only (b)2 only (c)both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2
Ans.(b)Out of the total forest cover, dense forest constitute around 2.54%; very dense forest and 8.77% are moderately dense forest. National Forestry Action Programme aims a long term plan to achieve the target of 33% forest cover.
Which one of the following is not a Biosphere reserve?[2005] (a)Agasthyamali (b)Nallamalai (c)Nilgiri (d)Panchmarhi
110.(b)Nallamalai is not a biosphere reserve. It is hill of Eastern ghats which stretches over Kurnool, Mahabubnagar, Guntur and Kadapa districts of the state of Andhra Pradesh.
Consider the following statements:[2005] 1.Silent Valley National Park in the Nallamalai range. 2.Pathrakkadavu Hydroelectric project is proposed to be built near the Silent Valley National Park. 3.The Kunthi river originates in Silent Valley’s rainforests. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 and 3 (b)2 only (c)2 and 3 (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(c)Silent Valley National Park is situated in Nilgiri Hills of Western Ghats. The park is bound by Attappadi reserved forest to the east and vested forest of Palaghat division and Nilamber division to the south-west respectively.
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:[2005] List-I (National ParkList-II (State) /Wildlife Sanctuary) A.Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary1.Orissa B.Kangerghat National Park2.Assam C.Orang Sanctuary3.Chhattisgarh D.Ushkothi Wildlife 4.Goa Sanctuary 5. Tripura Codes : (a)A-2; B-1; C-5; D-3 (b)A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1 (c)A-2; B-3; C-5; D-1 (d)A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
Ans.(b)National Park/ Wildlife Sanctuary Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary- Goa Kangerghat National Park- Chhattisgarh Orang Sanctuary- Assam Ushkothi Wildlife Sanctuary- Orissa.
Match List-I (National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary) with List-I) (Nearby Town) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:[2006] List-I List-II (National Park/(Nearby Town) Wildlife Sanctuary) A.Chandra Prabha1.Jaipur B.Karera2.Jhansi C.Jaisamand3.Agra D.Nahargarh4.Varanasi 5.Udaipur Codes : (a)A-4; B-4; C-1; D-1 (b)A-5; B-2; C-3; D-1 (c)A-4; B-2; C-5; D-1 (d)A-5; B-1; C-3; D-2
Ans.(c)
Which one of the following is also known as Top Slip? [2007] (a)Ismlipal National Park (b)Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (c)Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary (d)Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
129.(d)Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is known as top slip. It is a part of Western Ghats is located above 300 metres from the sea level on the Anamalai mountain ranges.
Which one of the following is located in the Bastar region? [2007] (a)Bandhavgarh National Park (b)Dandeli Sanctuary (c)Rajaji National Park (d)Indravati National Park
Ans.(d)Indravati National Park is located in the Bastar region. The park is situated at the distance of 97.4 km Bastar.
Consider the following statements:[2007] 1.In India, Red Panda is naturally found in the Western Himalayas only. 2.In India, Slow Loris lives in the dense forests of the North East. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 only (b)2 only (c)Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
141.(b)Red Panda is found in mountains of Nepal, north-eastern India, China, Bhutan and Slow Loris lives in dense forest of north-east, dense forest of Assam. Red Panda is found in Eastern Himalayas, China, Bhuan and slow loris in the dense forest of north-east Assam.
Out of all the biosphere reserves in India, four have been recognized on the World Network by UNESCO. Which one of the following is not one of them?[2008] (a)Gulf of Mannar (b)Kanchenjunga (c)Nanda Devi (d)Sunderbans
Ans.(b) 149.(b)Omkareshwar Project is associated with Narmada river.
Consider the following statements:[2008] 1.Salt-water crocodile is found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 2.Shrew and Tapir are found in the Western Ghats of the Malabar region. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 only (b)2 only (c)Both 1 and 2 (d)Neither 1 nor 2

Ans.(c)Salt water crocodile was common and found throughout the Andaman and Nicobar Islands living in the mangrove habitats. Shrew and Tapir are found in western ghats of the Malabar region.

Which one among the following has the maximum number of National Parks?[2008] (a)Andaman and Nicobar Islands (b)Arunachal Pradesh (c)Assam (d)Meghalaya
Ans.(a)Andaman and Nicobar has 9 national parks; Assam has 6, Arunachal Pradesh and Maghalaya both have 2 each.
Consider the following regions:[2009] 1.Eastern Himalayas 2.Eastern Mediterranean region 3.North-Western Australia Which of the above is/are Biodiversity Hotspot(s)? (a)1 only (b)1 and 2 only (c)2 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(b)Eastern Himalayas and Eastern Mediterranean region are Biodiversity hotspots. South west part of Australia has hotspots.
In India, which one of the following states has the largest inland saline wetland?[2009] (a)Gujarat (b)Haryana (c)Madhya Pradesh (d)Rajasthan
Ans (d)Rajasthan has the largest inland saline wetland, area of Sambhan Salt lake.
Consider the following statements:[2010] 1.The boundaries of a National Park are defined by legislation. 2.A Biosphere Reserve is declared to conserve a few specific species of flora and fauna. 3.In a Wildlife Sanctuary, limited biotic interference is permitted. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a)1 only (b)2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(c)The fix boundary of a National Park is described in the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. The legislation states the actual area of the National Park which is notified by the state government. A biosphere reserve conserves an ecosystem and not just few specific species of plants and animals.
Consider the following pairs: Protected area Well-known for 1.Bhiterkanika, Odisha……Salt Water Crocodile 2.Desert National Park,……Great Indian RajasthanBustard 3.Eravikulam, Kerala……Hoolak Gibbon Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?[2010] (a)1 only (b)1 and 2 only (c)2 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(b)Hoolak found in North eastern reigon of India. It covers 38% of the forest area. Hoolak Gibbon is found in North Eastern region of India.
A particular State in India has the following characteristics :[2012 – I] 1. It is located on the same latitude which passes through northern Rajasthan. 2.It has over 80% of its area under forest cover. 3.Over 12% of forest cover constitutes Protected Area Network in this State. Which one among the following States has all the above characteristics? (a)Arunachal Pradesh (b)Assam (c)Himachal Pradesh (d)Uttarakhand
192.(a)Arunanchal Pradesh
With reference to the wetlands of India, consider the following statements :[2012 – I] 1. The country’s total geographical area under the category of wetlands is recorded more in Gujarat as compared to other States. 2.In India, the total geographical area of coastal wetlands is larger than that of inland wetlands. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1 only(b)2 only (c)Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans.(a)The countries total geographical area under the category of wetlands is more in Gujarat as compared to other states. India has 60% of in land wetland out of total wetland.
Consider the following pairs:[2013 – I] National ParkRiver flowing through the Park 1.Corbett National Park:Ganga 2.Kaziranga National Park:Manas 3.Silent Valley: National Park:Kaveri Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (a)1 and 2(b) 3 only (c)1 and 3 (d)None of these
Ans.(d)Through Corbett National Park Ramganga flows(not Ganga) which is a tributary of Ganges. Through Silent Valley National Park river Bhavani flows which is a tributary of Kaveri. Kaziranga and Manas are both national parks.
Consider the following pairs :[2014 – I] WetlandsConfluence of rivers 1.Harike Wetlands :Confluence of Beas and Satluj/Sutlej 2.Keoladeo Ghana :Confluence of National Park Banas and Chambal 3.Kolleru Lake:Confluence of Musi and Krishna Which of the above pairs is/ are correctly matched? (a)1 only (b)2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3
Ans.(a)Harike Wetlands is at Confluence of Beas and Satluj/Sutlej. The Keoladeo National Park formerly known as the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary in Bharatpur is at the confluence of two rivers, the Gambhir and Banganga. Kolleru Lake is one of the largest freshwater lakes in India located in state of Andhra Pradesh. Kolleru is located between Krishna and Godavari delta.

Questions

1. Possessing a tremendous diversity of climate and physiographic, India has a great variety of fauna. What important steps are being taken to preserve the main species of Indian Fauna? Have these efforts been successful? [1982]
2. What are biosphere reserves? Explain its significance. [1990]
3. Account for the varied environmental problems resulting from the wide ‘spread deforestation in both Aravallis and Himalayan regions. [1991]
4. What is biodiversity? Why should it be preserved? [1992]
5. Where do Mangroves occur in India? Describe their main characteristics. [1996]
6. Why has there been opposition from 4th North-Eastern States to the Supreme Court ban on all activities inside forests [1997]
7. What are mangroves arid in what way are they useful to us. [2001]

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Indian Soil

• Introduction
• Factors of Soil Formation
• Soil Classification
• Soil Degradation

Introduction

Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth’s body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions:

• as a medium for plant growth
• as a means of water storage, supply and purification
• as a modifier of Earth’s atmosphere
• as a habitat for organisms

Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth’s body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions:

• as a medium for plant growth
• as a means of water storage, supply and purification
• as a modifier of Earth’s atmosphere
• as a habitat for organisms

In India, soil had been classified from the ancient period itself even though it was not as detail as the modern classifications.

In the ancient period, the classification was based on only two things; whether the soil is fertile or sterile. Thus the classification were:

• • Urvara [fertile]
  • Usara [sterile]

In the modern period, when men started to know about the various characteristics of soil they began to classify soil on the basis of texture, colour, moisture etc.

When the Soil survey of India was established in 1956, they studied soils of India and their characteristics.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning, an institute under the control of Indian Council of Agriculture Research did a lot of studies on Indian soil.

Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions

• Parent Material
• Relief
• Climate
• Natural Vegetation

Parent Material

• The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials.
• In most of the cases, the parent material determines the colouration, mineral composition and texture of the soil.
• In some cases, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties of the parent rock.
• Climatic factors induce chemical changes which also affect physical properties of the soil.
• The surface rocks are exposed to the process of weathering. In this process, the rocks are converted into fine grains and provide a base for the soil formation.
• In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into:

1. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
3. Gondwana rocks
4. Deccan basalts
5. Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of extra peninsular India {Rock System}

Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks

• They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian era)(formed due to solidification of molten magma about 4billion years ago)].
• They form the ‘Basement Complex’ of peninsular India.
• They are basically granites, gniesses and schists.
• These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic materials and give rise to red soils on weathering.
• The red colour of these soils is due to the presence of iron oxide.

Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks

• They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick).
• On weathering they give calcareous [containing calcium carbonate; chalky] and argillaceous [consisting of or containing clay] soils.
• The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous minerals.

Gondwana rocks

• These rocks are also sedimentary in nature and they are much younger.
• On weathering they give rise to comparatively less mature soils.
• The soil is more or less of uniform character but of low fertility.

Deccan basalts

• Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India many hundred million years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
• Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
• Consequently the weathering of these rocks has given rise to soils of darker colour.
• The is fertile with high moisture holding capacity and is popularly known as ‘regur’ or black cotton soil.

Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

• Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) India have given rise to soils with high porosity.
• These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial soils on weathering.
• Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. These soils have little relation with the original rocks.
• On the other hand, the soils of peninsular plateau are generally coarse-grained and are closely related to the parent rocks. The peninsular soils are generally less fertile.

Relief

• The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep slopes like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc.
• Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it hinders soil formation. Example: Chambal ravines, higher reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal or no forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
• The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
• The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are sufficiently deep.

Climate

• Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in soil formation.
• They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, the quantity of water seeping through the soil and the type of micro-organisms present therein.
• Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate. Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of soils in two different types of climates.
• The crystalline granites produce laterite soil in relatively moist parts of the monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas.
• Hot summer and low rainfall develops black soil as is found in some parts of Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent rock.
• In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under arid climate.
• In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There is little vegetation and the soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are invariably of light colour.
• In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms in semiarid and arid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil organic matter].
• In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is very slow and the soils are acidic in nature.

In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic. Why?

• Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches the materials into deeper horizon.
• During the dry summer season the evaporation exceeds precipitation and through capillary action iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making the soil red.
• In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes deep down in the horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that it resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which literally means brick.

Natural Vegetation

• Natural vegetation reflects the combined effects of relief and climate.
• The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by the growth of vegetation.
• The decayed leaf material adds much needed humus to soil thereby increasing its fertility.
• The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India. There is a close relationship between the vegetation types and soil types in India.

Soil Classification

Major classification of Indian soils

• Alluvial soil [43%]
• Red soil [18.5%]
• Black / regur soil [15%]
• Arid / desert soil
• Laterite soil
• Saline soil
• Peaty / marshy soil
• Forest soil
• Sub-mountain soil
• Snowfields

Alluvial soil – 43%

• Area – Covers an area of 1.43 million sq.km.
• Coverage – Alluvial soil is also known as riverine soil because it is mainly found in the river basin.
• Crop Suitability – Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.
• Origin – These soils are formed by the sediments brought down by the rivers.
• Characteristics – Alluvial soils are very fertile. They contains potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane,paddy,wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and can be productive after proper treatment and irrigation.

This soil is divided into

Khadar soil: the khaddar soils are enriched with fresh silts. They are low lying, frequently inundated by floods during the rainy season. It occupies the flood plains of rivers. The khaddar tracts called as kankar are rich in concentration.
The Bhangar: This soil lies above the flood level. It is well-drained but because of the calcium carbonate nodules. The texture of soil varies from the loamy soil to clayey soil.

Colour : Light Grey to Ash Grey. Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.

• Rich in: potash
• Poor in: phosphorous.

Red soil: 10.6 %

• Area – They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 per cent) of the total area of the country.
• Coverage – These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil Nadu.Other regions with red soil include parts of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.
• Crop Suitability – Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated
• Origin -.
• Characteristics – On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.
  • Porous, friable structure.
  • Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
  • Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.
  • Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.
  • Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.

Black soil / Regur soil: 9.4 %

• Area – These soils cover an extensive area of 300,000 km2.
• Coverage – These soils are also called as regur soils. Central India and Deccan plateau mainly constitutes this type of soil.
• Crop Suitability – The soil is suitable for growing cottons. It is believed that the climatic conditions along with the parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.
• Origin – This type of soil is typically of the Deccan trap region spread over Northwest Deccan plateau and is made from lava flows.
• Characteristics – Mature soil. High water retaining capacity. Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.
  • Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.
  • Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.
  • Colour: Deep black to light black.
  • Texture: Clayey.

Lateritic Soils: 7.75%

• Area – Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq km.
• Coverage – Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
• Crop Suitability – suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
• Origin – They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
• Characteristics – Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides.
  • They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and nitrogen.
  • Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron phosphate.
  • In wetter places, there may be higher content of humus.

Forest – Mountain Soils

Forest – Mountain Soils: 8.67%

• Area – These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km or 8.67% of the total land area of India.
• Coverage – In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and north facing slopes. The south facing slopes are very steep and exposed to denudation and hence do not support soil formation. Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.
• Crop Suitability – They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in peninsular forest region. Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest region.
• Origin -The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forests and their character changes with parent rocks, ground-configuration and climate. Consequently, they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to one another..
• Characteristics – The forest soils are very rich in humus.
  • They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
  • They require good deal of fertilizers for high yields.

Arid – Desert Soils: 4.32%

• Area – They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km (4.32%).
• Coverage – Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand here is blown from the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing south-west monsoon winds. Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• Crop Suitability – Phosphates and nitrates make these soil fertile wherever moisture is available. There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities are available. In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, millets, maize and pulses are grown..
• Origin – They are formed under conditions of high temperature and very less rainfall.
• Characteristics – They are usually poor in organic matter. Some desert soils are alkaline with varying degree of soluble salts like calcium carbonate. Calcium content increases downwards and the subsoil has ten times more calcium. The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.

Saline – Alkaline Soils: 2.125%

• Area – Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 sq km of area.
• Coverage – These soils are found in canal irrigated areas and in areas of high sub-soil water table.
• Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
• Crop Suitability – .
• Origin -.
• Characteristics – The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.

Peaty – Marshy Soils

• Area -.
• Coverage – Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called kari.

Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of Uttarakhand.

• Crop Suitability – Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but as soon the rains cease, they are put under paddy cultivation..
• Origin -The most humid regions have this type of soil.
• Characteristics – They are deficient in potash and phosphate.They are black, heavy and highly acidic.

Soil Degradation

• Level
• Cuses

Source – https://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/archive/niaes/marco/marco2015/text/ws3

Degradation level

It is estimated that out of 329 M ha total geographical area (TGA) of India, the area under agriculture is 179.9 M ha (60.47% of TGA) and 120.4 M ha area is degraded through one or more degradation types, which in turn, is affecting the country’s productive resource base. It has been estimated, a total of more than 5000 tonnes of topsoil is being eroded every year. Of about 1600 m tonnes, representing 30% of the total eroded area, is permanently getting lost to the sea.

Source – https://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/archive/niaes/marco/marco2015/text/ws3

National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) prepared the wasteland Atlas of India highlighting the different forms of wastelands their nature and extent. The earliest assessment of the area affected by the land degradation made by the National Commission on Agriculture was 148 M ha, followed by 175 M ha by the Ministry of Agriculture (Soil and Water Conservation Division). The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) estimated projected an area of 187 M ha as degraded lands in 1994, and revised it to 147 M ha in 2004. The National Wasteland Development Board estimated an area of 123 M ha under wastelands.

Causes of Soil Degradation

Farmers in India are complaining about low productivity because of various reasons and soil degradation is one of them. Loss of soil fertility results in low productivity. It also results in high cost-of-production, low income, food scarcity, loss of biodiversity etc. As food security is a major concern, India has to overcome the challenge of low productivity due to soil degradation. Conservation of soil is the only way to override this problem.

Major causes of soil degradation

Soil erosion
Decline of soil fertility
Water logging
Salinity
Shifting cultivation
Soil erosion:
Among the agents, water is considered as the main cause of soil erosion.
Main agents of soil erosion are (1) Water, (2) Wind, (3) Waves and (4) Glaciers
Removal of the top layer of soil by various means, which include both natural events and human activities, is called as soil erosion.
Water-caused soil erosion can be classified as below:
Sheet Erosion: Uniform removal of the top soil just like a sheet.
Rill Erosion: Heavy water flow cause rill in Land.
Gully Erosion: Rill will enlarge as Gullies and land will be disordered. ( eg: Chambal Valley)
Note: Wind erosion also causes sheet and rill erosions.
Note: The largest area affected by soil erosion in India is the State of Rajasthan followed Madhya Pradesh.

CONSEQUENCES OF SOIL EROSION

Fertility of top soil will be lost.
Nutrients content will decline as they are washed away by erosion.
Underground water level will be reduced.
Loss of vegetation and habitat.
Drought and flood become frequent.
Rivers get dried off.
Adversely affect the economy and culture.
Natural hideouts are formed when gully erosion occurs (Ex: Chambal valley was famous for criminal’s hideout).

Decline of soil fertility

Soil fertility is mostly affected in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and U.P.
It is a condition when the soil is not giving enough production even though adequate irrigation and nutrients are supplied.
The major reasons for decline of soil fertility are:
Frequent cropping
Unscientific rotation of crops
Extensive and excessive use of chemical fertilizers
Too much use of chemical pesticides
Land should left uncultivated for a period of time and let to retain its fertility. Cropping after cropping will leave the land unfertile.
Leguminous plants can be cultivated in intervals which will increase the fertility of the soil.

Water logging

If there is no proper drainage system in the land, the land will become waterlogged.
This results in the saturation of crops.
The normal circulation of air will not be possible due to water logging and the amount of oxygen in the soil will decline.
Construction of proper drainage system to allow water flow away from the land is the best way to reduce water logging.

Salinity

Soil will become saline or alkaline in low rainfall areas. Rajasthan is an example.
When the sea water enters the land, the soil becomes saline.
The presence of calcium carbonate beneath (kankar) the soil will act as impermeable to water and water gets logged as happened in Indira Gandhi canal regions of Rajasthan. If the soil contains salt content, it will spread to the whole land due to this.

Shifting / jhum cultivation

It is a type of cultivation practiced mainly in North-Eastern states of India
It is a type of slash and burn method of cultivation.
After reaping the crops, the land (usually the forest) is slashed and burned. The next cultivation will be in another plot and the burned land will let uncultivated for a period.
In the early periods, the gap between two cultivations in a land was 10-20 years.
Due to population increase and availability of land is reduced, the gap decreased to merely 2-3 years.
This causes major deforestation, environmental pollution, loss of habitat for wild animals etc.
The burning of forest results in soil erosion and gradual degradation of soil.

Soil conservation methods

Afforestation.
Contour ploughing (cultivation against the direction of the wind).
Strip cultivation (cultivation in strips).
Flood control by government initiatives.
Reclamation of bad lands.
Wind breaks in land; like trees at borders.
Organic farming.
Control/restrict shifting cultivation.
Construction of proper drainage.
Leveling of gullies, ravines etc.
Control of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the market.
Proper awareness about the need of conservation.

UPSC_Pre_MCQ

          When you travel in certain parts of India, you will notice red soil. What is the main reason for this colour?[2010] (a)Abundance of magnesium (b)Accumulated humus (c)Presence of ferric oxides (d)Abundance of phosphates

Ans.(c)Red soil in India is largely found in Deccan plateau. Red soil is less clayey and sandier in nature and has a rich content of iron and small  amount of humus. Red soil is also known as yellow soil. The redness is the soil is due to Jerric oxide, is 2nd largest soil found in India from south of Bundelkhand to North of Raj mahal hill.

          Which of the following statements regarding laterite soils of India are correct?[2013 – I] 1.They are generally red in colour. 2.They are rich in nitrogen and potash. 3.They are well-developed in Rajasthan and UP. 4.Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these soils. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a)1, 2 and 3 (b)2, 3 and 4 (c)1 and 4 (d)2 and 3 only
Ans (c)Laterite soil is rusty red in colour due to iron oxide present in it. In the lateritic soil cashews and tapiocas can be grown.

UPSC MAINS QUESTIONS

1. Describe various types of soils and their distribution in India. 1983
2. Describe the various types of soil erosion and the steps which may be taken for the protection of land. 1984
3. What are laterite soils? Where do we find these in India? Explain their problem and the most suitable use. 1986.
4. What are black soils? Give their distribution in India and explain their uses and problems. 1988
5. What is the need for soil conservation? What are the major measures taken by the government towards conserving soil in India? 1990
6. Why are the soils of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh black while those of Karnataka red? Discuss relative fertility of these soils. 1994
7. Write a short note on Laterite soils. 2000
8. Write a short note on Regurs. 2005
9. Write short note on causes of soil erosion and its control in India. 2005
10. Write notes on Inceptisol. 2007

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Agriculture

Salient Features

Some of the outstanding features of Indian agriculture are mentioned as follows.

1. Subsistence agriculture:

Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture. The farmer owns a small piece of land, grows crops with the help of his family members and consumes almost the entire farm produce with little surplus to sell in the market.

This type of agriculture has been practiced in India for the last several hundreds of years and still prevails in spite of the large scale changes in agricultural practices after Independence.

2. Pressure of population on agriculture:

The population in India is increasing at a rapid pace and exerts heavy pressure on agriculture. Agriculture has to provide employment to a large section of work force and has to feed the teeming millions. While looking into the present need of food grains, we require an additional 12-15 million hectares of land to cope with the increasing demands by 2010 A.D. Moreover, there is rising trend in urbanization.

Over one-fourth of the Indian population lived in urban areas in 2001 and it is estimated that over one-third of the total population of India would be living in urban areas by 2010 A.D. This requires more land for urban settlements which will ultimately encroach upon agricultural land. It is now estimated that about 4 lakh hectares of farm land is now being diverted to non-agricultural uses each year.

3. Importance of animals:

Animal force has always played a significant role in agricultural operations such as ploughing, irrigation, threshing and transporting the agricultural products. Complete mechanisation of Indian agriculture is still a distant goal and animals will continue to dominate the agricultural scene in India for several years to come.

4. Dependent upon Monsoon:

Indian agriculture is mainly dependent upon monsoon which is uncertain, unreliable and irregular. In spite of the large scale expansion of irrigation facilities since Independence, only one-third of the cropped area is provided by perennial irrigation and the remaining two-third of the cropped area has to bear the brunt of the vagaries of the monsoons.

5. Variety of crops:

India is a vast country with varied types of relief, climate and soil conditions. Therefore, there is a large variety of crops grown in India. Both the tropical and temperate crops are successfully grown in India. Very few countries in the world have a variety of crops comparable to that produced in India.

6. Predominance of food crops:

Since Indian agriculture has to feed a large population, production of food crops is the first priority of the farmers almost everywhere in the country. More than two-thirds of the total cropped area is devoted to the cultivation of food crops. However, with the change in cropping pattern, the relative share of food crops came down from 76.7 per cent in 1950-51 to 58.8 per cent in 2002-03.

7. Insignificant place to given fodder crops:

Although India has the largest population of livestock in the world, fodder crops are given a very insignificant place in our cropping pattern. Only four per cent of the reporting area is devoted to permanent pastures and other grazing lands. This is due to pressing demand of land for food crops. The result is that the domestic animals are not properly fed and their productivity is very low compared to international standards.

8. Seasonal pattern:

India has three major crop seasons.

(i) Kharif season starts with the onset of monsoons and continues till the beginning of winter. Major crops of this season are rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, sesamum, groundnut and pulses such as moong, urad, etc.

(ii) Rabi season starts at the beginning of winter and continues till the end of winter or beginning of summer. Major crops of this season are wheat, barley, jowar, gram and oil seeds such as linseed, rape and mustard.

(iii) Zaid is summer cropping season in which crops like rice, maize, groundnut, vegetables and fruits are grown. Now some varieties of pulses have been evolved which can be successfully grown in summer.

The share of agriculture and allied sectors in gross value added (GVA) declined from 18.2 per cent in 2012-13 to 16.4 per cent in 2017-18 (1st AE).

The share of livestock in GVA of agriculture has been rising since 2011-12, while that of the crop sector declined from 65 per cent in 2011-12 to 60 percent in 2015-16.

As per the fourth Advance Estimates for 2016-17 released by Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers’ Welfare, India achieved a record production of food grains estimated at 275.7 million tonnes during 2016-17.

As per the 1” AE released on 2 2” September 2017, food grains production for the Kharif Season during 2017-18 is estimated at 134.7 million tonnes, lower by 3.9 million tonnes as compared to 2016-17.

The total production of rice during 2017-18 is estimated at 94.5 million tonnes vis-a-vis 96.4 million tonnes (4th Advance Estimates) in 2016-17.

• The production of pulses during 2017-18 is estimated at 8.7 million tonnes, sugarcane at 337.7 million tonnes, oilseeds at 20.7 million tonnes and cotton at 32.3 million bales of 170 kgs each.
• India ranks first, with 9.6 per cent (179.8 Mha) of the global net cropland area according to United States Geological Survey, 2017.
• Agricultural productivity is determined by the appropriate use of critical inputs like irrigation, seeds, fertilisers, credit, machines, technology and extension services. As reported in input survey (2011-12), out of total operational holdings, only 9.4 per cent used certified seeds, 27 per cent used seeds of notified variety and only 9.8 per cent used hybrid seeds.
• The All India percentage of net irrigated area to total cropped area was 34.5 per cent in 2014-15, which makes a large part of agriculture in India dependent on rainfall.
• Pradhan Mantri Knshi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) is being implemented in mission mode with the help of Command Area Development to complete 99 major and medium irrigation projects covering 76.0 lakh hectares in a phased manner by December 2019 to increase the coverage of irrigated area and thereby agricultural productivity.
• The NSSO Report (July2012 — June 2013) had indicated that a very small share of agricultural households engaged in crop production activities were insuring their crops.
• During Kharif 2016 season, 23 States implemented PMFBY and during Rabi season of 2016-17, 25 States/Union Territories implemented PMFBY.
• As on December 2017, total claims of Rs. 13292 crore have been approved for 116 lakhs farmers (applications) and Rs. 12020 crore have been paid under PMFBY.

Land use Pattern

• Cropped area in the year under consideration is called Net Sown Area.
• The net sown area occupies as follows:
• Highest category (above 55% of the reporting area) in Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Kenia.
• Medium category (30-55%) in Karnataka, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Goa and Assam.
• Low category (below 30%) in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.

Area sown more than once: This area is used to grow more than one crop in a year. This accounts for 3 4.3% of the net sown area and 16.6% of the total reporting area of the country. This type of area comprises land with rich fertile soil and regulars water supply.

Forests: It is the area which the govt. has identified & demarcated for forest growth.

Land not available for cultivation: This class consists of two types of land

(i) Land put to non-agricultural uses

(ii) Barren and unculturable waste

Permanent pastures and other grazing land: It amounts to about 3.45% (i.e. 11.8 mha) of the total reporting area. The area presently under pastures is not sufficient keeping in view the large population of livestock in the country.

Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves: It includes all cultivable land which is not included under net area sown, but is put to some agricultural use.

Culturable Wasteland: It includes all lands available for cultivation, but not cultivated for one reason or the other.

The history of Agriculture in India dates back to Indus Valley Civilization Era and even before that in some parts of Southern India.India ranks second worldwide in farm outputs. As per 2018, Agriculture employed 50% of the Indian work force and contributed 17-18% to country’s GDP.

In 2016. Agriculture and allied sectors like animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries accounted for 15.4% of the GDP (gross domestic product) with about 31% of the workforce in 2014. India ranks first globally with highest net cropped area followed by US and China. The economic contribution of agriculture to India’s GDP is steadily declining with the country’s broad-based economic growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic fabric of India.

India exported $38 billion worth of agricultural products in 2013, making it the seventh largest agricultural exporter worldwide and the sixth largest net exporter. Most of its agriculture exports serve developing and least developed nations. Indian agricultural/horticultural and processed foods are exported to more than 120 countries, primarily in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, SAARC countries, the European Union and the United States.

As per the 2014 FAO world agriculture statistics India is the world’s largest producer of many fresh fruits like banana, mango, guava, papaya, lemon and vegetables like chickpea, okra and milk, major spices like chili pepper, ginger, fibrous crops such as jute, staples such as millets and castor oil seed.

India is the second largest producer of wheat and rice, the world’s major food staples.

India is currently the world’s second or third largest producer of several dry fruits, agriculture-based textile raw materials, roots and tuber crops, pulses, farmed fish, eggs, coconut, sugarcane and numerous vegetables. India ranked in the world’s five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items, including many cash crops such as coffee and cotton, in 2010. India is one of the world’s five largest producers of livestock and poultry meat, with one of the fastest growth rates, as of 2011.

One report from 2008 claimed India’s population is growing faster than its ability to produce rice and wheat. Other recent studies claim India can easily feed its growing population, plus produce wheat and rice for global exports, if it can reduce food staple spoilage, improve its infrastructure and raise its farm productivity to those achieved by other developing countries such as Brazil and China.

Types of Farming

India is a vast country and had various climatic patters and geographical condition, so these are different types of farming.

1. Subsistence Farming In this type of farming farmer produce for his own consumption. These is no surplus left for sale. This involves cultivation of food crops like rice, wheat, pulses etc.

2. Commercial Farming In this farming, food crops produced specifically for sale in the market by using improved variety of seeds and machinery. Normally it is characterised by large farms and only one crop is grown. Advance machinery chemical fertilizers, hybrid seeds and pesticides are used. Cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, oil seeds, chiffles etc. are commercial crops.

3. Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation means the migratory subsistence farming. Under this system, a plot of land is cultivated for few years and when the crop yield declines the plot of land is changed. Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize, small millets, tobacco & sugarcane are the main crops grown under this type of agriculture. It is known by different names in different parts of the country. It is “Jhumming” in—north eastern states; ‘podu’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Bewar’ in MP., ‘Ku-mari’ in Western Ghats.

4. Mixed Farming: Mixed farming is raising of crops and rearing of cattle, poultry, bee keeping, sen culture etc. on the same cattle or poultry do not need extra expenditure as they thrive on the farm wasters. Livestocks animals provide substitute income when crops are not ready. This type of farming is done in densely populated areas.

5. Plantation Farming: Predominance of a single crop (only for sale) farming in tropical regions is called plantation farming. Important crops grown under this type of farming are cotton, tea, rubber, spices, coconuts etc. This farming outlay. Latest knowledge and modern methods of agriculture are used in this farming.

6. Intensive Agriculture: System of cultivation using large amount of labour and capital with application of fertilizers and insecticides is called intensive agriculture. Use of high efficiency machinery for planting, cultivating and harvesting as well as latest irrigation equipment.

7. Extensive Agriculture: System of crop cultivation using small amounts of labour and capital in relation to area of land being farmed. The crop yield in extensive agriculture depends primarily on the natural fertility of the soil, terrain climate and the availability of water.

Green Revolutions

First Green Revolutions

The term “Green Revolution” is applied to the period from 1967 to 1978. The green revolution started by Dr. Norman Bortaug in Mexico and Dr. M.S. Swaminathan in India. Between 1947 and 1967, efforts at achieving food self sufficiency were not entirely successful. Population was growing at a much faster rate than good production. This called for drastic action to increase yield.

The action came in the form of the green revolution. The term green revolution is a general one that is applied to successful agricultural experiments in many countries. But it was most successful in India.

There were three basic elements in India regarding Green revolution

Continued expansion of farming areas.

Double cropping of existing farm and

Using new and scientific treated seeds with improved genetics.

Components of the Green Revolution

High yield varieties (seeds), irrigation, use of fertilizers, use of insecticide and pesticide, command area development, consolidation of holding, land reform, supply of agricultural credit, rural electrification, rural roads and marketing, farm mechanisation, agricultural universities.

Impacts of Green Revolution

Impacts of Green Revolution are as follows

Positive Impact Increase in agricultural production, reduction of the import of food grains, capitalistic farming, industrial growth and rural employment.

Negative Impact Inter-crop imbalance, increase in regional imbalance, unemployment due to mechanisation. Increase in interregional migration, ecological problems and social conflict between large and small farmers.

Second Green Revolution

The current growth rate of agricultural sector n Indian economy is only 2-3% per year. It’s productivity is much below of international standards. On the other hand the need for foods constantly growing due to increasing population and changing dietary habits. We are also talking about implementing the Right to Food for everybody. The challenge of food security is being threatened by the effects of climate change as well as growing use of bio fuels made from food crops such as maize. Against these odds, we have already used up most of the cultivable land. There is no scope for bringing new land under cultivation. All these factors demand from us to increase the productivity from available land. There is a need to raise it by launching Second Green Revolution. The Second Green Revolution would have to be knowledge based, scientifically managed and should improve agricultural efficiency. National Commission on Farmers 2005, Eleventh Five Year Plan, etc. have given their suggestions on Second Green Revolution. The Government too has initiated many programmes and set targets in this direction. Some suggestions and initiatives are given below:

1. Sustainable farm profitability by embracing the entire agro-economy from the farmer to consumer.

2. Introduction of new technologies such as Information Technology, Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering, water efficient irrigation systems; environment friendly pesticides, precision agriculture/farming organic farming, biodynamic farming .

3.Massive crop diversification and multiple cropping is one of the key features of second green revolution.

4. Self-sufficiency in pulses and oil seeds and doubling horticulture and floriculture would be doubled in five years.

5. Promoting ecosystem of food production, food processing and marketing.

6.Second green revolution look after local geographical and climatic position, soil fertility and nature.

7. Massive crop diversification and multiple cropping.

Revolutions Area

• Green Revolution — Agriculture (Food Production)
• Yellow Revolution — Oil seeds production (Edible oil)
• White Revolution — Milk
• Blue Revolution — Fish
• Pink Revolution — Shrimp, food processing
• Brown Revolution — Coffee/Cocoa
• Red Revolution — Meat/Tomato
• Golden Revolution — Fruits/Apple/Honey/Horticulture
• Grey Revolution — Fertilizers
• Silver Revolution — Eggs/Poultry
• Golden — Fibre Jute
• Silver – Fibre Cotton

Cropping seasons

• Kharif
• Rabi
• Zaid

Kharif Crops

• Also known as Monsoon / Summer Crops
• Requires plenty of water
• Require long hot weather for growth
• Sown → May – July , Harvest → Sep – Oct
• Harvest – Beginning of November
• Major Crops → Paddy, Sugarcane, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Pulses, Groundnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sesame, Guar etc.

Rabi Crops

• Also known as Winter Season Crops
• Requires less water
• Require cold weather for growth
• Sown → Oct – Nov,
• Harvest → Feb – April
• Major Crops → Wheat, Gram, Potato, Peas, Oil seeds (Rapeseed, linseed), Mustard etc.

Zaid Crops

• Sown between Rabi & Kharif crops i.e. from March to June
• Requires warm dry weather for growth & longer day length for flowering
• Major Crops → Seasonal fruits & vegetables (Musk melon, Water melon, Cucumber, China Paddy, Gourds, Fodder crops)

Largest agricultural products in India by value

Column 1 – Rank
Column 2 – Commodity
Column 4 – Value (US$, 2013)
Column 5 – Unit price (US$ / kilogram, 2009)
Column 6 – Average yield (tonnes per hectare, 2010)
Column 7 – Most productive country (tonnes per hectare, 2010)

Largest agricultural products in India by value

Agriculture productivity in India, growth in average yields from 1970 to 2010

Horticultural productivity in India, 2013

Column 1 – Country
Column 2 – Area under fruits production (million hectares)
Column 3 – Average Fruits Yield (Metric tonnes per hectare)
Column 4 – Area under vegetable production (million hectares)
Column 5 – Average Vegetable Yield (Metric tonnes per hectare)

Agricultural Regions

Various types of Agricultural Regions of India are as follows:

An agricultural region is defined as an area having homogeneity in relief, soil type, climatic conditions, farming practices, crops produced and crop association.

India is a vast country and is endowed with diverse geographical conditions which are bound to bring in regional variations in agriculture.

Several scholars have attempted to delineate the agricultural regions of India. Prominent among them are E. Simkins (1926), D. Thomer (1956), M.S. Randhawa (1958), L.D. Stamp (1958), Chen Hang-Seng (1959), O.H.K. Spate and A.T.A. Learmonth (1960), Ramchandran (1963), F. Siddiqui (1967), O. Slampa (1968), Miss P. Sengupta (1968), R.L. Singh (1971) and Jasbir Singh (1975) The scheme suggested by the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) is simple and comprehensive and is reproduced here. It is based on the predominance of crops and crop associations. Accordingly India can be divided into following agricultural regions:

1. Rice-Jute-Tea Region

This vast region includes lowlands, valleys and river deltas in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Orissa, northern and eastern Bihar parts of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh and Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh.

The rainfall vanes from 180 to 250 cm. Rice are the predominant crop due to fertile alluvial soils, abundant rainfall and high summer temperatures. Jute is mainly grown in the Hugli basin of West Bengal but some areas have been brought under jute cultivation in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Orissa and Tarai region of U.P. Tea is mainly grown in Assam, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri areas of West Bengal and Tripura. Sugarcane and tobacco are grown in Bihar. Coconut is grown in coastal areas. Mango, pineapple, betal leaves, bananas, jack fruits, and oranges are the main fruit crops.

2. Wheat and Sugarcane Region:

This region comprises Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Western Madhya Pradesh and north eastern Rajasthan. Most of the areas have rich fertile alluvial soils with some parts having black and red soils. Rainfall is moderate, large part of which is caused by south-west monsoons in summer. Some rainfall is caused by western disturbances in winter.

Irrigation is a vital input in drier areas. As its name indicates, this region is dominated by wheat and sugarcane cultivation. The main wheat belt of India extends over Punjab, Haryana, Ganga-Yamuna doab of Uttar Pradesh and north-eastern Rajasthan. Sugercane is mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh and contiguous parts of Bihar. Rice, pulses and maize are the other important crops.

3. Cotton Region:

It spreads on the regur or black cotton soil area of the Deccan plateau, where the rainfall varies from 75 to 100 cm. Obviously, cotton is the main crop but jowar, bajra, gram, sugarcane, wheat, etc. are also grown.

4. Maize and Coarse Crops Region:

Western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat are included in this region. The rainfall is scanty and is normally below 50 cm. Agriculture is possible only with the help of irrigation. Maize is mainly grown in the Mewar plateau where wheat and ragi are also produced. In the southern part, rice, cotton and sugarcane are grown. Bajra and pulses are grown throughout the region.

5. Millets and Oilseeds Region:

This region includes areas of poor soils and broken topography in Karnataka plateau, parts of Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh and eastern Kerala. The rainfall varies from 75 to 125 cm. The millets include bajra, ragi and jowar while the oilseeds grown are groundnut and caster. Pulses are also grown. Mangoes and bananas are important fruit crops.

6. Fruits and Vegetable Region:

This region extends from Kashmir Valley in the west to Assam in the east. The rainfall varies from 60 cm in the west to 200 cm in the east. Apple, peach, cherries, plum, apricot are grown in the west while oranges are important in the east. Besides, rice, maize, ragi potatoes, chillies and vegetables are also grown.

Major Crops

Indian crops can be divided into following categories:

. Food crops: Rice, wheat, maize, millets-jowar, bajra etc.

. Cash crops: Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, groundnut etc.

. Plantation crops: Tea, Coffee, spices, coconut, rubber etc.

. Horticulture crops: Apple, mango, banana, citrus etc.

Food grains

Rice

• Rice is predominantly a Kharif or crop. It covers one third of total cultivated area of India.
• It provides food to more than half of the Indian population. Rice is produced in almost all states.
• Top three producer states are West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.

• Temperature: 22 – 32 C
• Rainfall: 150-300 cm
• Soil: Deep clayey and loamy soil

Rice Production by States (Million Tonnes)

Wheat

Next to rice, wheat is the most important food-grain of India and is the staple food of millions of Indians, particularly in the northern and north-western parts of the country. India is the 4th largest producer of wheat in the world after Russia, the USA and China and accounts for 8.7 per cent of the world’s total production of wheat.

• Temperature:
• 10-15 degree Celsius (Sowing time);
• 21-26 degree Celsius (Ripening & Harvesting)
• Rainfall: 75-100 cm
• Soil: Deep clayey and loamy soil

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana are the three prominent wheat producing states. These states account for about 60 per cent of the wheat area and produce about three-fourths of the total wheat production in India. In fact, Punjab, Haryana and the contiguous western parts of U.P. have earned the distinction of being called the ‘Granary of India’. The other major wheat producing states are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

• India produced 7.3 million tonnes of jowar from 9.5 million hectares of land with an average yield of 772 kg/hectare in 2003-04.
• Maharashtra far excels all other states and produces more than 54 per cent of the total jowar production of India. As many as 22 districts of Maharashtra produce jowar but Osmanabad, Nanded, Yavatmal, Buldhana, Parbhani, Kolhapur, Amravati, and Ahmednagar are important producing districts.
• Karnataka with 18.51 per cent of India’s jowar production is the second largest producer.
• Andhra Pradesh has experienced a decrease in area and production of jowar during the last few years
• Jowar is grown as fodder in some of the south western parts of Uttar Pradesh.
• In Gujarat also, it is grown as fodder in the districts of Surat, Bharuch, Mahsana, and Vadodara. Rajasthan’s dry climate and sandy soil provide favourable conditions for the cultivation of jowar.
• Temperature:
• 27-33 degree Celsius
• Rainfall: 50-100 cm
• Soil: Less sensitive to soil deficiencies.

Millets – Jowar

Jowar is the most important millet. Next to rice and wheat jowar is the third most important food crop both with respect to area and production. Dr. Voelkar has spoken very highly of nutritive value of jowar as a fodder.

• There had been wide fluctuations in the production of bajra from a minimum of 2.6 million tonnes in 1950-51 to a maximum of 11.8 million tonnes in 2003-04. The yields have also varied widely from a minimum of 286 kg/hectare in 1960-61 to a maximum of 1,134 kg/hectare in 2003-04 . Large scale variations in area under bajra cultivation have also been observed.
• Nearly 80 per cent of India’s bajra comes from Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Maharashtra is the largest producer of bajra in India. In 2002-03 this state produced 11.46 lakh tonnes which was 24.74 per cent of the total production of the country.
• In Maharashtra, bajra is mainly grown in the central plateau having poor soils and dry climate. Nashik, Dhule, Satara, Pune, Sangli, Aurangabad, Solapur, Jalgaon and Ahmednagar are the main producing districts. Neighbouring Gujarat is the second important producer, where 9.07 lakh tonnes (19.58 per cent of India’s total) of bajra was produced in 2002-03.
• Temperature:
• 27-32 degree Celsius
• Rainfall: 50-100 cm
• Soil: Less sensitive to soil deficiencies.

Millets – Bajra

Bajra is the Second most important millet which is used as food in drier parts of the country. It is also widely used as fodder as its stalks are fed to cattle.

Pulses

In India, total pulse area and production during 2017-18 has been >293 lakh hectares (Lha) and 245 lack tonnes (Lt) respectively. Out of the total area, >73 Lha is in Madhya Pradesh alone, earning a prime status in pulse production commodity registering a remarkable 25% of

the country’s pulse area with 33% production, thereby ranking first both in area and production. This is followed by Rajasthan in respect of area (16 per cent) and Maharashtra in case of total production (13 per cent).

pulse crops are cultivated in Kharif, Rabi and Zaid seasons of the Agricultural year.

More than 90 per cent of total pulse production has been the contribution of 10 states

namely, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu and Telangana.

Cash Crops

Sugar Cane

The global production of raw sugar is 112 m.t. India stands first in area (3.93 m. ha) and production (167 m.t) among the sugarcane growing countries of the world. Uttar Pradesh has the largest area almost 50 per cent of the cane area in the country, followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab. These nine are most important sugarcane producing states. Sugarcane production is also highest in U.P. followed by Maharashtra. Productivity wise, Tamilnadu stands first with over 100 tonnes per hectare followed by Karnataka, Maharashtra.

• Temperature:
• 21-27 degree Celsius
• Rainfall: 75-150 cm
• Soil: Deep rich loamy soil

Source: United States Department of Agriculture

Fiber

Cotton

Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in different parts of the country depending upon the climatic conditions. In Punjab and Haryana it is sown in April-May and is harvested in December-January that is before the winter frost can damage the crop.

In the peninsular part of India, it is sown upto October and harvested between January and May because there is no danger of winter frost in these areas. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown both as a kharif and as a rabi crop.

• Temperature:
• 21-30 degree Celsius
• Rainfall: 50-100 cm
• Soil: Black soil of Deccan and Malwa Plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region.
• The growth of cotton is retarded when the temperature falls below 20°C. Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant and it is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.

Types of Cotton:

Three broad types of cotton are generally recognized on the basis of the length, strength and structure of its fibre.

1. Long staple cotton:

It has the longest fibre whose length varies from 24 to 27 mm. About half of the total cotton produced in India is a long staple. It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

2. Medium staple cotton:

The length of its fibre is between 20 mm and 24 mm. About 44 per cent of the total cotton production in India is of medium staple. Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are its main producers.

3. Short staple cotton:

This is inferior cotton with fibre less than 20 mm long. It is used for manufacturing inferior cloth and fetches less price. About 6 per cent of the total production is of short staple cotton. U.P., Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab are its main producers.

In spite of the three fold increase in the yield; our yield of 307 kg/hectare is just half of the world average and far below the yield of 731 kg/hectare in the USA, 756 kg/hectare in Pakistan and 816 kg/hectare in Egypt.

Major Cotton Producers in India

1. Maharashtra: Maharashtra is the largest producer and produces 29.78 per cent of the total cotton production of India.

2. Gujarat: Accounting for 19.33 per cent of the total production and 21.33 per cent of the cotton area of the country.

3. Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh accounts for 12.46 per cent of production and 10.47 per cent of hectarage of India.

4. Punjab: Punjab has slipped from first position in 1990-91 to fourth position in 2002-03 as a producer of cotton in India. This state has the distinction of giving highest yield of 4.1 quintals/hectare (2002-03) which is more than double the national average.

5. Haryana: Accounting for 11.91 per cent production and 6.77 per cent of hectarage, Haryana is the fifth largest producer of cotton in India

Oilseeds

India has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world. Five major oil seeds viz., groundnut, sesamum, rapeseed and mustard, linseed and castor seed occupied 212.24 lakh hectares (2002-03) which is over 15 percent of the net area sown.

Groundnut

• Temperature:
• 20°-30°C
• Rainfall: 50-75 cm
• Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper limit of groundnut cultivation. It is highly susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant water.
• Dry winter is needed at the time of ripening. It can be grown both as a kharif and as a rabi crop but 91 per cent of the total area under groundnut is devoted to kharif crop.

India is the largest producer of groundnut in the world and accounts for about one-third of the world’s production. There had been almost 150 per cent increase in the production of groundnut from 34.8 lakh tonnes in 1950-51 to a record production of 85.6 lakh tonnes in 1992-93.

Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the three main producers. These three states together account for over 65 per cent of total production of India. Gujarat is the largest producer contributing over 25 per cent of India’s total production. Tamil Nadu is the second largest producer accounting for over 22 per cent of the total groundnut produced in India. Andhra Pradesh is the third largest producer of groundnut in India and accounts for over 18 per cent of India’s total production.

Sesamum (Til)

• Temperature:
• 21° – 23°C
• Rainfall: 45-50 cm
• It is grown as a kharif crop in the north and as a rabi crop in the south.

India has the world’s largest area under sesamum and is also the largest producer of this crop accounting for one-third of the world production. Since it is a rainfed crop, the production figures show fluctuating trends. But there has been an overall 87 percent increase in its production from 4.5 lakh tonnes in 1950-51 to a record 8.4 lakh tonnes in 1990-91.

Sesamum is produced in almost all parts of the country but Gujarat is the largest producing state. In 2002-03 this state produced over 28 per cent of the total production of India. The other major producers are West Bengal, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Rapeseed and Mustard

• Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climate of the Satluj-Ganga plain and very small quantity is grown in the peninsular India. They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or mixed form with wheat, gram and barley.

India has the largest area and the highest production of rapeseed and mustard in the world. There has been nearly four-fold increase in their production in three decades from 1960-61 to 1991 after which varying trends of production have been noticed.

Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are the two major producers of these two oilseeds and contribute over 53 per cent of the total production of India. Uttar Pradesh has been traditionally the largest producer of rapeseed and mustard but according to 2002-03 figures, Rajasthan has overtaken Uttar Pradesh to become the largest producer. In that year Rajasthan produced 1,318 thousand tonnes (33.64%) against 759 thousand tonnes (19.37%) produced by Uttar Pradesh. Haryana is the third largest producer contributing 694 thousand tonnes (17.71%).

Linseed

• Temperature:
• about 20°C
• Rainfall: 75 cm
• Soil – Clay loams, deep black soils and alluvial soils are best suited for its cultivation.
• It can be cultivated upto a height of 800 metres above sea level. It is a rabi-crop which is sown in Oct-Nov. and harvested in March-April.

India produces about 10 per cent of world’s linseed and is world’s third largest producer after Russia and Canada. However, there had been almost consistent decline in production during the last few years and the production had fallen from 309 thousand tonnes in 1995-96 to 173 thousand tonnes in 2002-03.

Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer accounting for 45 thousand tonnes (26%) of linseed.

Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer with 37 thousand tonnes (21.4%) of linseed to its credit.

Bihar is the third largest producer of linseed in India. In 2002-03, this state produced 26 thousand tonnes of linseed which was over 15 per cent of the all India production.

Castor Seed

• Temperature:
• 20°-25°C
• Rainfall: 50-75 cm
• Soil – It is grown on red sandy loams in the peninsular India and on light alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain.
• Almost the whole area of castor seed production is rainfed. It is a kharif crop in the north and a rabi crop in the south.

India is the second largest producer of castor seed after Brazil and produces about one-fifth of the total world production. The production increased from a meagre one lakh tonnes in 1950-51 to all time record of over nine lakh tonnes in 1996-97.

Gujarat is the largest producer of castor seed in India. This state produced 283 thousand tonnes of castor seed out of a total of 428 thousand tonnes produced by the entire country in 2002-03.

Andhra Pradesh was a distant second producer and produced only 85 thousand tonnes (19.9 per cent of all India) in 2002-03.

Beverage

Coffee

India produces about 2.5 percent of world’s coffee on almost the same percentage of coffee plantations. Thus India is an insignificant producer of coffee and stands nowhere when compared with Brazil (25%), Columbia (15%) and Indonesia (7%).

Coffee Arabica and Coffee Robusta are the two main varieties of coffee grown in India accounting for 49 per cent and 51 per cent of area respectively under coffee.

Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for about 70 per cent of total coffee production and 60 percent of the area under coffee in India.

Kerala is the second largest producer of coffee but lags far behind, accounting only for about 23.27 per cent of the total production of the country.

• Temperature:
• 15°C and 28 °C
• Rainfall: 150-250 cm
• Soil: Well drained, deep friable loam soil.
• It does not tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30°C and strong sun shine and is generally grown under shady trees. Prolonged drought is also injurious to coffee. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries.
• Stagnant water is harmful and this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 metres above sea level.

Source: United States Department of Agriculture

Tea

Yield of tea increased by 166.6 per cent, 66.6 per cent and 71 percent respectively between 1960-61 and 2003-04. At present, India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world and accounts for around 27 per cent of world production.

Assam is the largest producer of tea accounting for over 51 per cent of the production and over 53 per cent of area under tea cultivation in India.

West Bengal is the second largest producer contributing over 22 per cent of India’s tea from about one-fourth of the country’s total area under tea cultivation.

In South India tea is produced in Nilgiri, Cardamom, Palni and Anaimalai hills in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka states extending from 9°N to 14°N latitudes. This region accounts for 25 per cent production and about 24 per cent of area under tea in India.

• Temperature:
• 20°-30°C
• Rainfall: 150-300 cm
• Soil: deep, friable loams.
• prolonged dry spell is harmful for tea, high humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves.
• Although tea requires heavy rainfall for its growth, stagnant water is injurious to its roots.
• Most of the tea plantations in India are found at elevations varying from 600 to 1,800 metres above sea level.

Spices

• India is known for its spices globally because of rich aroma, taste and texture
• India is the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices
• India produces around 75 of the 109 varieties of spices listed by ISO
• Organic farming for spices is gaining great prominence in the country due to the increasing demand for safe and non-contaminated spices
• The key spices produced in the country include garlic, chili, pepper, coriander, cardamom, cumin, fennel, turmeric and ginger

Exports

• During 2016-17, a total of 9,47,790 MT of spices and spice products valued Rs.17664.61 crore (US$2633.30 Million) has been exported from the country as against 8,43,255 tons valued Rs.16238.23 crore (US$ 2482.83 Million) in 2015-16 registering an increase of 12% in volume.
• The key exports include chili, turmeric, pepper, mint products and spice oils/oleoresins.
• The key export destinations include USA, China, Vietnam, UAE and Indonesia.

Animals and Products

Fisheries/pisciculture

• Fish catch in India is of two types – marine fisheries and inland fisheries.
• India is the third largest producer of fish and second largest producer of inland fishing in the world.
• It accounts for about one per cent of the total agricultural production in India.
• About 75% of marine fish landings are on the west coast and only 25% in the east coast.
• Important fish caught along the coast are shark, sardine, herring, Mumbai duck fly fish ribbon fish and Mackerrel.
• West Bengal is the largest producer of fish in India and is the largest producer of inland fish (31%) also.
• Kerala has about 85% of India’s total processing facilities and processes the largest amount of fish in the country.
• Kerala has about 85% of India’s total processing facilities and processes the largest amount of fish in the country
• India exports about 8% of the total fish production. Sri Lanka alone purchases 80% of our fish and fish products.
• Sasson Dock in Mumbai is a major fishing harbour.
• There are six major fishing harbours and 38 minor fishing harbours. The major harbours are —Cochin, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Roy Chowk, Paradip and Sas son dock.
• The Central Institute of Fisheries, Nautical and Engineering Training is at Kochi.
• The Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for Fisheries is in the Bengaluru.
• Livestock includes domestic animals such as cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, horses, ponies, donkeys, camels, pigs etc. India’s animal wealth is both large and varied. India has about 20% of the world’s livestock population.
• Dairy Farming includes a class of agricultural enterprise for long-term production of milk which is processed for eventual sale of a dairy product. India is endowed with largest livestock population in the would. It accounts for about 57.3% of the world’s buffalo population and 14.7% of the cattle population.
• Milch Breeds of Cattle — Gir, Sindhi, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparkar and Deoni
• Draught Breeds of Cattle — Nagori, Bauchaur, Malvi Hallikar, Ponwar, Sin, Bargur.
• Dual Purpose Breeds of Cattle — Tharparkar, Haryana, Mewati, Kankrej, Rath, Nirnari, Dangi, Ongole.
• Goats Breeds — Angora, Pashmina, Barabari, Marwari, Mehsana Beetal, Kathiawani and Zaiwadi.
• Buffaloes Breeds — Murrah, Jafarabadi, Shruti, Mehsana, Nagpuri, Nu Ravi, Bhadawani.
• Horses and Ponies Breeds — Marwari, Kathiawari, Manipuri, Bhutani, Spiti and Chummarti.

Breeds

Scriculture

• Sericulture refers to the rearing of the silk worms for the raw silk production. Silk is a protein produced form the salivary gland of silk worms.
• Important features of Indian sericulture are as follows.
• It is a agro-based labour intensive, export oriented and cottage industry
• Silk is exported to more than 80 countries like USA, UK, Italy UAE, Saudi Arabia etc.
• India enjoys the unique distinction of being the only country in the world to produce all the four varieties of silk such as Mulberry Tasar, Eri and Muga.
• Muga is the monopoly of India. India ranks second in the world after China in Silk production.

Horticulture

Horticulture is a comprehensive term and indudes fruits vegetables, spices, floriculture and coconut. Some of the most important crops grown in India as a part of the horticulture sector are: mango, cashewnut, apple, banana, orange, grape, peach, pear, apricot, strawberry and vegetables. Some important information regarding these fruits is given in the table.

Fruits

Apple

Temperate fruit crop- It requires average temperature from 21oC to 4 C during the active growing season, 100-125 cm rainfall well distributed throughout the growing season. These conditions are found on the hifi slopes at altitudes arranging from 1500-2700 m above sea level.

Kullu and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir valley and hilly areas of Uttarakhand.

Loamy soil, rich in organic matter, free from water logging are suitable for apple cultivation.

Banana

Primarily a tropical and sub-tropical crop requiring average temperature of 20°C to 30°C throughout the growing period and rainfall fairly above 150 cm.

Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra

are the two main producers.

India is the largest producer of banana in the world.

Mango

It is native of monsoon land and is grown in areas with temperature 20°C to 30°C and rainfall 75 cm to 250cm.

Uttar Pradesh. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu are the major producers.

India is the largest producer of

mango and contributes 54% of the

world production of mango.

Grapes

it requires long summer, short winter and moderately fertile well drained soil

The major producing States are Uttarakhand, Himachal

Pradesh. Jammu and Kashmir.

In Northern India, the plant gives only one crop during summer, but

in South India, the plant grows

throughout the year, one in March, April and the other in August and September.

Strawberry

It requires above 16 °C temperature during its growing season and lots of water because its fields are sub-merges under 10 cm of fresh and slowly moving water for at least three months.

The main producers are the hilly areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand.

Water retaining fertile soil is most

suitable.

Floriculture

Government of India has identified floriculture as a sunrise industry and accorded it 100% export oriented status. Owing to steady increase in demand of flower, floriculture has become one of the important commercial trades in agriculture.

Floriculture products mainly consist of cut flowers, pot plants, cut foilage, seeds bulbs, tubers, rooted cuttings and dried flowers or leaves. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal have emerged as major floriculture centers.

UPSC_Pre_MCQ

Following are the characteristics of an area in India: [2010] 1.Hot and humid climate 2.Annual rainfall 200 cm 3.Hill slopes up to an altitude of 1100 metres 4.Annual range of temperature 15°C to 30°C. Which one among the following crops are you most likely to find in the area described above?
(a)Mustard (b)Cotton (c)Pepper (d)Virginia tobacco
Ans.(c)
The lower Gangetic plain is characterised by humid climate with high temperature throughout the year. Which one among the following pairs of crops is most suitable for this region ?[2011 – I] (a) Paddy and Cotton (b) Wheat and Jute (c) Paddy and Jute (d) Wheat and Cotton
Ans.(c)The low and deltaic plains of the Ganges is characterised by swamps and Sundarbans. So, the people out there grow Paddy and Jute.
A state in India has the following characteristics : 1. Its northern part is arid and semi-arid. 2. Its central part produces cotton. 3. Cultivation of cash crops is predominant over food crops.[2011 – I] Which one of the following states has all of the above characteristics ? (a) Andhra Pradesh.(b) Gujarat. (c) Karnataka.(d) Tamil Nadu.
Ans. (b)

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