Protected Areas

India – Protected Areas

• Overview
• National Parks
• Biosphere reserves
• Wildlife sanctuaries
• Tiger, Leopard and Elephant
• Reserved forests and protected forests of India.
• Conservation reserves and community reserves.
• Private protected areas of India.

Overview

As of May 2004, the protected areas of India cover 156,700 square kilometres (60,500 sq mi), roughly 4.95% of the total surface area.

There are four categories of Protected areas in India Constituted under the provisons of Wildlife (Protection) ACT, 1972. Tiger Reserves are constituted by including the areas of National park sand sanctuaries. There are 50 tiger reserves in India.

Conservation Reserves (CRs)

No.77

Area -2594.03

% of Geographical area-0.08

Community Reserves

No. 46

Area 72.61

% of Geographical area -0.002

Total Protected Areas (PAs)

No.769

Area 162,099.47 km2

% of Geographical area – 4.93

National Parks (NPs)

No-104

Area 40501.03

% of Geographical area – 1.23

Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs)

No, 544

Area -118931.80

% of Geographical area 3.62

National Parks (NPs)

According to the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, a national park is an area, whether within a sanctuary or not, [that] can be notified by the state government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment. No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972″.

National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas. India’s first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. By 1970, India only had five national parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species.

Further federal legislation strengthening protection for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s. As of July 2018, there were 104 national parks encompassing an area of 40,501 km2 (15,638 sq mi), under protected areas of India category II comprising 1.23% of India’s total surface area.

Biosphere reserves of India

• The Indian government has established 18 biosphere reserves in India,(categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks or preserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some economic uses.
• Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. Animals are protected and saved here.

11 of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.

Wildlife & Wildlife sanctuaries of India

• Wildlife comprises animals, birds, and insects living in forests.
• With large regional variations in physiography, climate and edaphic types. Indian forests offer a wide range of habitat types, which is responsible for a large variety of wild life in India.
• Elephant is the largest Indian mammal, which only a few centuries ago, was found in large numbers in vast forest tracts of India.
• The one-horned rhinoceros, India’s second largest mammal was once found throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far west as Rajasthan. The number of this mammal has drastically decreased and now there are less than 1,500 rhinoceros in India, confined to the restricted locations in Assam and West Bengal.
• Rhinoceros are protected in Kaziranga and Manas sanctuaries of Assam and the Jaldapara sanctuary of West Bengal.
• The wild buffalo is found in Assam and in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.
• The gain or the Indian bison is one of the largest existing bovine and is found in the forests of Central India.
• There are about 3,000 tigers in India mainly found in the forests of eastern Himalayan foothills and in parts of the peninsular India.
• The number of Cheetahs had fallen to less than two hundred until successful breeding programme in the Gir sanctuary in Gujarat resulted in some recovery.
• The arboreal clouded leopard is found in northern Assam while the Black Panther is widely distributed predator.
• Brown, Black and Sloth Bear are found at high altitudes in the northwestern and central Himalayas.
• Yak, the ox of snows is largely found in Ladakh and is tamed to be used as a draught animal.
• Stag or barasingha is found in Assam and Madhya Pradesh.
• The Munjac or barking deer are found extensively in the lower wooded slopes of the Himalayas and in the forests of southern India.
• The kastura or the musk deer, much sought after for its musk pod, live in the birch woods in the higher forests of the Himalayas.
• 1936, the first National Park in India was created and named as Hailey National Park now called jim corbett (Uttarakhand).
• Thamin is a pretty deer found in Manipur.
• India is extremely rich in bird life. There are about 2,000 species of birds in India.
• Although most of the bird has their origin in India, a number of them have their source in other areas. Some birds such as ducks, cranes, swallows, ant flycatchers migrate from central Asia to the wetlands of Bharatpur every winter Recently, some migratory birds have been seen near Mathura.
• Wildlife sanctuaries of India are classified as IUCN Category IV protected areas. Between 1936 and 2016, 543 wildlife sanctuaries were established in the country that cover 118,918 km2 (45,914 sq mi) as of 2017.
• Among these, the 50 tiger reserves are governed by Project Tiger, and are of special significance for the conservation of the Bengal tiger.

Tiger, Leopard and Elephant population by state

There are 50[1] tiger reserves in India which are governed by Project Tiger which is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA). India is home to 70 percent of tigers in the world. In 2006, there were 1,411 tigers which increased to 1,706 in 2010 and 2,226 in 2014.The total number of wild tigers has risen to 3,890 in 2016 according to World Wildlife Fund and Global Tiger Forum.

By the year 2012, according to the National Tiger Conservation Authority, there were estimated only 1,411 tigers in existence in India. The 2010 National Tiger Assessment estimated the total population of tigers in India at 1,706. As per Ministry of Environment and Forests, the tiger population in India stood at 2,226 in 2014 with an increase of 30.5% since the 2010 estimate.

The reserves were categorized into four major categories. Karnataka has the highest number of tigers in the age group of 1.5 years with more than 408 big cats. Other states with significant populations included Uttarakhand (340), Madhya Pradesh (308), Tamil Nadu (229), Maharashtra (190), Assam (167), Kerala (136) and Uttar Pradesh (117).

Reserved forests and protected forests of India

Reserved forests

• A reserved forest (also called reserve forest) or a protected forest in India are terms denoting forests accorded a certain degree of protection. The term was first introduced in the Indian Forest Act, 1927 in British India, to refer to certain forests granted protection under the British crown in British India, but not associated suzerainties.
• After Indian independence, the Government of India retained the status of the existing reserved and protected forests, as well as incorporating new reserved and protected forests.
• A large number of forests which came under the jurisdiction of the Government of India during the political integration of India were initially granted such protection.
• The first Reserve Forest of India was Satpura National Park.Land rights to forests declared to be Reserved forests or Protected forests are typically acquired (if not already owned) and owned by the Government of India.
• Unlike national parks of India or wildlife sanctuaries of India, reserved forests and protected forests are declared by the respective state governments. At present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way: Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise. In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products.

Protected Forests

Protected forests are of two kinds – demarcated protected forests and undemarcated protected forests, based on whether the limits of the forest have been specified by a formal notification.

Typically, protected forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which is turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding. For example, Sariska National Park was declared a reserved forest in 1955, upgraded to the status of a wildlife sanctuary in 1958, becoming a Tiger Reserve in 1978. Sariska became a national park in 1992, though primary notification to declare it as a national park was issued as early as 1982.

Conservation reserves and community reserves of India

• Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India. Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities, and community areas if part of the lands are privately owned. Administration of such reserves would be through local people and local agencies like the gram panchayat, as in the case of communal forests.
• Community reserves are the first instances of private land being accorded protection under the Indian legislature. It opens up the possibility of communally owned for-profit wildlife resorts, and also causes privately held areas under non-profit organizations like land trusts to be given protection.
• These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2003 the amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. These categories were added because of reduced protection in and around existing or proposed protected areas due to private ownership of land, and land use. A case in point was the Melghat Tiger Reserve where a large area was left unprotected due to private ownership.
• Amendments to the Wild life protection act in 2003, provided a mechanism for recognition and legal backing to the community initiated efforts in wildlife protection. It provides a flexible system to achieve wildlife conservation without compromising community needs. Tiruvidaimarudur Conservation Reserve, declared on February 14, 2005, is the First Conservation Reserve to be established in the country. It is an effort of a village community who wanted to protect the birds nesting in their village.
• These categories roughly correspond to IUCN Category V (conservation reserves) and VI (community reserves) protected areas.
• Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve near Thirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu, declared in 2005, is the first Conservation Reserve in the country.[3]
• In 2012, Rajasthan government in India declared “Jawai Bandh forests” as a conservation reserve forest. Jawai Bandh forest is situated in Pali district and it is in close proximity of Kumbalgarh. Sanctuary.keshopur chamb gurdaspur (Punjab) conservation reserve India’s first community reserve. Keshopur chamb,Gurdaspur (Punjab) is India’s first community reserve.

Private protected areas of India

• Private protected areas of India refer to protected areas inside India whose land rights are owned by an individual or a corporation / organization, and where the habitat and resident species are offered some kind of protection from exploitative activities like hunting, logging, etc. The Government of India did not provide any legal or physical protection to such entities, but in an important amendment introduced by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002, has agreed to protect communally owned areas of ecological value.
• Private ownership
• In pre-British India, and erstwhile British India and associated suzerainties, large tracts of wilderness were under private ownership, typically under the ownership of the royal families of the suzerainties. Animals and habitat in these tracts were protected by royal decree and royal forces. Later, after the advent of the British, these lands were protected by personal guards of the royal families.
• However, these lands were usually used as hunting grounds for the maharajahs and other noble families, so while the animals and habitat were accorded protection from external entities, hunting for sport by the owners of the land was commonly practised. Even so, some of such hunting was done on a sustainable basis, and some wildlife like the Asiatic cheetah were trained to hunt in such hunting grounds.
• After independence, the political integration of India caused most of the royal families to lose their ownership rights to these lands, and these were converted into reserved forests, wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. Some of India’s most famous protected areas had their origins in privately owned protected lands. Some of these are listed below.

From the Northern princely states

Dachigam National Park – Once the private hunting preserve of the Maharaja of Kashmir Hari Singh, it was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1951 after the accession of Kashmir, and was designated a national park in 1981.

From the Western princely states

• Gir National Park – These were the private hunting grounds of the Nawab of Junagadh, who by royal decree banned the hunting of the increasingly rare Asiatic lion in 1900. It was only in 1966 that the region was protected as the Gir Forest Area, and the region received national park status in 1975.
• Ranthambhore National Park – The area around the Ranthambhore Fort were the private hunting grounds of Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II of Jaipur. After integration with India, the Government of India declared the region Sawai Madhopur Game Sanctuary in 1955, making it a Project Tiger reserve in 1973, and a national park in 1980
• Keoladeo National Park – These were the private hunting grounds of Maharaja Brijendra Singh of Bharatpur. Upon joining the Union of India, the maharaja kept his hunting privileges at the grounds until 1971, when it was declared a wildlife sanctuary. It was upgraded to the status of a national park in 1982.
• Sariska National Park – Sariska was the private hunting grounds of Maharaja Jai Singh of Alwar. It was given the status of a reserved forest in 1955 and became a wildlife sanctuary in 1958, before becoming a national park in 1992.
• Darrah National Park – These were the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Kota, and were declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 after the merger of Kota with India, and combined with two other sanctuaries a national park in 2004.

From the Central princely states

• Bandhavgarh National Park – The area around the overgrown Bandhavgarh Fort were the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Rewa. After the union of Rewa with India, the maharaja still retained hunting rights to the area until 1968, when the Maharaja handed over the hunting grounds (with the exception of the fort) to be declared a national park. A special permit is still required to visit the fort.
• Madhav National Park – The area around Shivpuri were the private hunting grounds of the Scindia royal family of Gwalior. Upon accession to India, the grounds were designated to be Madhya Bharat National Park (1959), later being renamed to Shivpuri National Park and finally to Madhav National Park.

From the Southern princely states

• Periyar National Park – The region around the Periyar lake was fashioned as a private game sanctuary by the maharaja of Travancore to stop the encroachment of tea plantations. Founded as Nellikkampatty Game Sanctuary in 1934, it was consolidated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1950 after the political integration of India, and designated as a national park in 1982.
• Bandipur National Park – These were private hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Mysore. In 1930, Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV declared Bandipur a game reserve of 80 km2, and in 1941 expanded it to 800 km2, reinventing it as Venugopala Wildlife Park. After the Kingdom of Mysore joined India, the park was made a Project Tiger reserve in 1973, and a national park in 1985.
• Rajiv Gandhi National Park – Nagarhole (as it was called initially) and its surrounding regions were the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Mysore. After the merger of Mysore with India, Nagarhole first became a wildlife sanctuary in 1955, and later became a national park in 1988.
• Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park – This region was the private hunting ground of the Nizam of Hyderabad. After the annexure of Hyderabad in 1956, it was wildlife sanctuary in 1975, and a national park in 1994.

From the Eastern princely states

• • Simlipal National Park – Initially a hunting ground for the Maharajas of Mayurbhanj. After the merger of Mayurbhanj with India in 1949, it became a reserved forest in 1956. It then became a tiger reserve (1973), wildlife sanctuary (1979), national park (1980) and finally a biosphere reserve (1994).
  • Manas National Park – The area was initially the hunting grounds of the Maharaja of Cooch Behar and the Raja of Gauripur. It was declared a protected area – Manas Sanctuary, as early as 1928, but the hunting rights of the royal families were not revoked. The sanctuary finally turned fully protected when it became a tiger reserve in 1973, and a national park in 1990.

However, royal families were allowed to keep personal land holdings below a certain threshold area, and hence some small scale privately held protected areas still exist in India.

Non-profit ownership

The biggest non-profit private organization which acquires wilderness tracts for development into private protected areas, the Nature Conservancy – does not operate in India, but has shown interest in expanding its operations to the country.

The World Land Trust, another non-profit organization, in partnership with the Wildlife Trust of India has funded two significant privately owned protected land holdings in India. The purpose of the holdings are to provide migration corridors to herds of Indian elephants,and the corresponding project is called the Wild Lands Corridor. The two corridors are:

• • The Siju-Rewak corridor in the Garo Hills in the state of Meghalaya, for connection between the Siju Wildlife Sanctuary and the Rewak Reserved Forest. This is one of only four forded corridors across the Simsang River, which bisects the Garo Hills. This region also contains large omnivores and carnivores like the Bengal tiger, clouded leopard and the Himalayan black bear.
  • The Tirunelli-Kudrakote corridor in the state of Kerala between the Tirunelli Reserved Forest and the Kudrakote Reserved Forest acts as a migration corridor for India’s largest extant elephant population. The region is part of the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot which is home to the Nilgiri tahr, Salim Ali’s fruit bat and 13 endemic bird species including the Malabar parakeet. The trust is in the process of reallocation of villages in the corridor, and is planning to register the corridor as a reserved forest once reallocation is complete, so that standard government protection is obtained.

The introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could be used for obtaining state protection in non-profit privately held lands of ecological value. (See Conservation reserves and community reserves of India)

Conservation areas of India

Conservation Areas in India refer to well-demarcated large geographical entities with an established conservation plan, and were part of a joint Indo-US project on “landscape management and protection”. The project ran from 1996 to 2002. These areas are home to many Conservation reliant species.

Four Conservation Areas were selected for this project:

• • Annamalai Conservation Area in Tamil Nadu
  • Garo Hills Conservation Area in Meghalaya
  • Satpura Conservation Area in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
  • Terai Conservation Area in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand

The primary goal was to develop experience in “landscape protection” – protection of large geographical entities as a whole, only parts of which may be under federal control and protection. Each of the conservation areas contained fully protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, managed resources like reserved forests and communal forests, as well as privately held land. The size of the selected regions constituted more than one forest division, and in one case was spread over two states

Endangered Species Projects

Project Tiger: The sort of India has taken a pioneering initiative for consuming tiger by launching the ‘Project Tiger’ is 1973.

India is home to 70% of tigers in the world. In 2014, there were 2,226 tigers. Statewise, Karnataka has the highest number of tigers (406) followed by 340 in Uttarakhand, 308 in Madhya Pradesh, 229 in Tamil Nadu. The project tiger aims to foster as exclusives tiger agenda in the core area of tiger reserves, which an inclusive people oriented agenda in the buffer. The largest tiger reserve is the Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam tiger reserve of Andhra Pradesh which covers the area of 3538 km2.

Project Elephant: Project elephant, a centrally sponsored scheme was launched in February 1992 to provide surgical and technical support to major elephant bearing states in the country for protection of elephants, their habitats and corridor. The project is being implemented in 13 states/UT’s viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunchal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karanataka, Kerala Meghlaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamilnadu, Utttranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal There are 28 notified elephant reserve in India cover ing approximately 60,00089 km area.

The Singhbhum Elephant Reserve, the first Elephant Reserve of India was created in 2001 under the Elephant project in Jhark hand.

India’s first exclusive hospital for Elephant will come up in Kerala.

Project Snow Leopard: This project was lunched to safe guard and conserve India’s unique natural habitats of high altitude wildlife population and their habitats by promoting conservation through participatory policies and actions. This project was drifted by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India. It was launched in January There are nearly 750 snow leopards in the country

Memorandum of Understanding (Mou) or Siberian Crane: This memorandum came into effect 1st July, 1993 and was amended is January 1999. This memorandum was focuses on conserving the siberian crane as one of these rarest crane species. India had signed the MOU on 13th Dec. 1998. Siberian crane are migratory visitors to India in winter season.

Mou for Marine Twotle: Major threats to marine turtle include unexceptionable exploitation, distinction of resting and feeding habitats and incidental morality is fishing operations. The objectives of this memorandum are conservation and management of Marine turtles and their habitats. India had signed this memorandom on 20 february, 2007.

MOU for Dugong: The dugong is a seagrass dependent marine’s mammal of tropical and subtropical coastal water. The dugong are vuinarable to human related influences due to their life history. Dugong is commonly known as sea cow. In India, these are found is Indian waters. From Gujarat to Andaman and Nicobar islands India had signed mou for Dugong on 28 May, 2008.

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Climate Change

India Climate Change

Observed Changes in Climate and

Weather Events in India

There are some observed changes in climate parameters in India. India’s Initial National Communication,

2004 (NATCOM i) to UNFCCC has consolidated some of these. Some highlights from NATCOM I and others are listed here. No firm link between the documented changes described below and warming due to anthropogenic climate change has yet been established.

• Surface Temperature

At the national level, increase of — 0.4° C has been observed in surface air temperatures over the past century. A warming trend has been observed along the west coast, in central India, the interior peninsula, and north-eastern India. However, cooling trends have been observed in north-west India and parts of south India.

• Rainfall

While the observed monsoon rainfall at the all-India level does not show any significant trend, regional monsoon variations have been recorded. A trend of increasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been found along the west coast, northern Andhra Pradesh, and north-western India (+10% to +12% of the normal over the last loo years) while a trend of decreasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over eastern Madhya Pradesh, north-eastern India, and some parts of Gujarat and Kerala (—6% to —8% of the normal over the last 100 years).

. Extreme Weather Events

Instrument records over the past 130 years do not indicate any marked long-term trend in the frequencies of large-scale droughts and floods. Trends are however observed in multi-decadal periods of more

frequent droughts, followed by less severe droughts.

There has been an overall increasing trend in severe storm incidence along the coast at the rate of 0.011

events per year. While the states of West Bengal and Gujarat have reported increasing trends, a decline

has been observed in Orissa. Goswami et al, by analysing a daily rainfall data set, have shown in

(i)A rising trend in the frequency of heavy rain events, and (ii) a significant decrease in the frequency of

moderate events over central India from 1951 to 2000.

. Rise in Sea Level

Using the records of coastal tide gauges in the north Indian Ocean for more than 40 years, Unnikrishnan

and Shankar have estimated, that sea level rise was between 1.06-1.75 mm per year. These rates are con

sistent with 1-2 mm per year global sea level rise estimates of IPCC.

• Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers

The Himalayas possess one of the largest resources of snow and ice and its glaciers form a source of water

for the perennial rivers such as the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra. Glacial melt may impact their

long-term lean-season flows, with adverse impacts on the economy in terms of water availability and hydropower generation.

Some Projections of Climate Change over

India for the 21st Century

Some modelling and other studies have projected the following changes due to increase in atmospheric GHG concentrations arising from increased global anthropogenic emissions:

• Annual mean surface temperature rise by the end of century, ranging from 3 to 50 C under A2 scenario and 2,5 to 40 C under B2 scenario of IPCC, with warming more pronounced in the northern parts of India, from simulations by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune.
• Indian summer monsoon (15M) is a manifestation of complex interactions between land, ocean and atmosphere. The simulation of ISM’s mean pattern as well as variability on interannual and intraseasonal scales has been a challenging ongoing problem. Some simulations by IITM, Pune, have indicated that summer monsoon intensity may increase beginning from 2040 and by 10% by 2100 under A2 scenario of IPCC.
• Changes in frequency and/ or magnitude of extreme temperature and precipitation events. Some results show that fine-scale snow albedo influence the response of both hot and cold events and that peak increase in extreme hot events are amplified by surface moisture feedbacks.

Impact of Climate Change on India:

• Impact on water Resources: Change in climate is expected to have long-term implications on the quality and quantity of water. According to NATCOM there will be decline in runoff in all river basins in India except Narmada and Tapi
• Impact on agriculture and Food resources: According to Indian Agricultural Research Institute, climate change will have adverse impact on Rabi crop- for every 1°C rise in temperature, the estimated loss of wheat is 4-5 million tonnes
• Rise in extreme weather events: Climate change has increased India’s vulnerability of extreme events. The 2017 high intensity Ockhi cyclone and 2018 dust storms in north India was attributed to climate change
• Impact on Human Health: Changes in climate may alter distribution of vector species (malaria mosquitoes) and may increase vulnerability to diseases. Further rising heat waves and cold waves have adversely affected human health.
• Impact on Forest Cover: According to studies, large areas of forest in India are likely to experience shift in forest types due to climate change. For example: xeric scrublands will increase
• Impact on Coastal Areas: A sea-level rise of 46-59cm in India by 21000 is estimated by NATCOM. Rising sea level and increasing tropical cyclone events pose great threat to coastal areas in India

Some Current Actions for Adaptation and Mitigation

The National Action plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was released on 30th June, 2008 to state India’s contribution towards combating climate change. The plan outlines Eight National Missions running through 2017. The Ministries involved submitted detailed plans to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change in December 2008.

The NAPCC consists of several targets on climate change issues and addresses the urgent and critical concerns of the country through a directional shift in the development pathway. It outlines measures on climate change related adaptation and mitigation while simultaneously advancing development. The Missions form the core of the Plan, representing multi-pronged, long termed and integrated strategies for achieving goals in the context of climate change.

Adaptation, in the context of climate change, comprises the measures taken to minimize the adverse

impacts of climate change, e.g. relocating the communities living close to the seashore, for instance, to

cope with the rising sea level or switching to crops that can withstand higher temperatures.

Mitigation comprises measures to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases that cause climate change in the first place, e.g. by switching to renewable sources of energy such as solar energy or wind energy, or

nuclear energy instead of burning fossil fuel in thermal power stations.

Current government expenditure in India on adaptation to climate variability, exceeds 2.6% of the GDP, with agriculture, water resources, health and sanitation, forests, coastal zone infrastructure and extreme weather events, being specific areas of concern.

Some Existing Adaptation related

Programmes

• CROP IMPROVEMENT

The present programmes address measures such as development of arid-land crops and pest management, as well as capacity building of extension work ers and NGOs to support better vulnerability reducing practices.

• DROUGHT PROOFING

The current programmes seek to minimize the adverse effects of drought on production of crops and livestock, and on productivity of land, water and human resources, so as to ultimately lead to drought proofing of the affected areas. They also aim to promote overall economic development and improve the socioeconomic conditions of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabitIng the programme areas.

• Forestry

India has a strong and rapidly growing afforestation programme. The aflorestation process was accelerated by the enactment of the Forest Conservation Act of 1980, which aimed at stopping the clearing and degradation of forests through a strict, centralized control of the rights to use forest land and mandatory requirements of compensatory afforestation in case of any diversion of forest and for any non.forestry purpose. In addition an aggressive afforestation and sustainable forest management programme resulted in annual reforestation of 1.78 mh during 1985.1997. and is currently 1.1 mha annually. Due to this, the carbon stocks In Indian forest have increased over the last 20 years to 9 -10 gigatons of carbon (GtC) during 1986 to

2005.

• WATER

The National Water Policy (2002) stresses that nonconventional methods for utili,ation of water,

including inter—basin transfers, artificial recharge of groundwater, and desalination of brackish or sea

water, as well as traditional water conservation practices like rainwater harvesting, induding roof-top

rainwater harvesting, should be practised to increase the utilizable water resources. Many states now have mandatory water harvesting programmes in several cities.

• COASTAL REGIONS

In coastal regions, restrictions have been imposed in the area between 200m and 500m of the KU (high tide line) while special restrictions have been imposed in the area up to 200m to protect the sensitive coastal ecosystems and prevent their exploitation. This, simultaneously, addresses the concerns of the coastal population and their livelihood. Some specific measures taken in this regard include construction of coastal protection infrastructure and cyclone shelters, as well as plantation of coastal forests and mangroves.

• Health

The prime objective of these programmes is the surveillance and control of vector borne diseases such as Malaria, Kala—azar, Japanese Encephalitis, Filaria and Dengue. Programmes also provide for emergency medical relief in the case of natural calamities, and to train and develop human resources for these tasks.

• Risk-financing

Two risk-financing programmes support adaptation to climate impacts. The Crop Insurance Scheme supports the insurance of farmers against climate risks, and the Credit Support Mechanism facilitates the extension of credit to farmers, especially for crop failure due to climate variability.

• Disaster Management

The National Disaster Management programme provides grants-in-aid to victims of weather related disasters, and manages disaster relief operations. It also supports proactive disaster prevention programmes, including dissemination of information and training of disaster-management staff.

The Eight Missions of NAPCC

I. National Solar Mission

The ultimate objective is to make solar energy competitive with fossil-based energy options. By increasing the share of solar energy in the total energy mix, it aims to empower people at the grass roots level. Another aspect of this Mission is to launch an R&D programme facilitating international co-operation to enable the creation of affordable, more convenient solar energy systems and to promote innovations for sustained, long-term storage and use of solar power.

II. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

The Energy Conservation Act of 2001 provides a legal mandate for the implementation of energy efficiency measures through the mechanisms of The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the designated agencies in the country. A number of schemes and programmes have been initiated which aim to save about 10,000 MW by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan in 2012.

III. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats

This Mission was launched to make habitats sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, management of solid waste and a modal shift to public transport. It aims to promote energy efficiency as an integral component of urban planning and urban renewal through its initiatives.

IV. National Water Mission

By 2050, India is likely to be water scarce. Thus, the Mission aims at conserving water, minimising wastage, and ensuring more equitable distribution and management of water resources. It also aims to optimize water use efficiency by 20% by developing a framework of regulatory mechanisms. It calls for strategies to accommodate fluctuations in rainfall and river flows by enhancing water storage methods, rain water harvesting and more efficient irrigation systems like drip irrigation.

V. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

The Himalayan eco-system is vital to preserving the ecological security of India. Increases in temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, drought and melting of glaciers are obvious threats. The Mission calls for empowering local communities especially Panchayats to play a greater role in managing ecological resources. It also reaffirms the measures mentioned in the National Environment Policy, 2006.

VI. National Mission for a Green India

The Mission aims at enhancing ecosystem services such as carbon sinks. It builds on the Prime Minister’s Green India Campaign for afforestation and increasing land area under forest cover from 23% to 33%. It is to be implemented through Joint Forest Management Committees under the respective State Departments of Forests. It also strives to effectively implement the Protected Area System under the National Biodiversity Conservation Act, 2001.

VII. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

The Mission aims to make Indian agriculture more resilient to climate change by identifying new varieties of crops (example: thermally resistant crops) and alternative cropping patterns. This is to be supported by a comprehensive network of traditional knowledge, practical systems, information technology and biotechnology. It makes suggestions for safeguarding farmers from climate change like introducing new credit and insurance mechanisms and greater access to information.

VIII. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change

The aim is to work with the global community in research and technology development by collaboration through different mechanisms. It also has its own research agenda supported by climate change related institutions and a Climate Research Fund. It also encourages initiatives from the private sector for developing innovative technologies for mitigation and adaptation.

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Natural Disasters

Natural Disasters in India 
Overview
Floods
Drought
Cyclones
Earthquakes

Overview

• Natural disasters in India, many of them related to the climate of India, cause massive losses of life and property.
• India is plagued by various kinds of natural disasters every year, such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones, and landslides.
• A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes, flooding, volcanic eruption, landslides, hurricanes etc.
• In order to be classified as a disaster it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss.
• Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions.
• Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat and many more crops.
• Around 85% of India’s area is vulnerable to hazard.
• About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities.
• Over 40 million hectares is prone to flood.
• About 8% of the total area is prone to cyclone and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.

Floods

Flood prone areas in India

• Areas which are subject to serious floods are mainly in the Plains of Northern India.
• It is estimated that over 90 per cent of the total damage done to property and crops in India is done in the Plains of Northern India.
• Annual deposition of silt and sand raises the bed and thus reduces the capacity of the river to accommodate flood water.
• The Assam Valley is another fertile belt which is affected sometimes seriously by flood havocs.
• The Brahmaputra which drains this valley receives from its tributaries, the Dibang and the Luhit, a large amount of water heavily laden with silt.
• Floods are almost a regular feature in coastal lowlands of Odisha.
• The deltas of the Godavari and the Krishna.
• Lower courses of the Narmada and the Tapi.

Causes for frequent flooding in India.

Man made Reasons:

• Lacks of drainage upgrade works.
• The encroachment and filling in the floodplain on the waterways.
• Lack of planning and enforcement has resulted in significant narrowing of the waterways and filling in of the floodplain by illegal developments.
• Constructions on the riverbed
• As the ice melts in the Himalayas, the water channels downstream swell. When the river enters Assam from Arunachal Pradesh, it experiences a steep fall in gradient, causing the water to hurtle down at a furious pace.
• During the monsoon, when the river is swollen with the precipitation from the Eastern Himalayas, its channels can’t take the huge volumes gushing down at high speed. Siltation and sedimentation in the channels compound the situation.
• Human hand in such floods as well. With increasing deforestation in the Eastern Himalayas, the runoff has increased, which means as the water rushes towards the plains, it carries along more sediment.
• The riverbed in the plains is full of sediment, impairing the Brahmaputra’s carrying capacity.

Physiological Reasons:

• About 60% of the flood damage in India occurs from river floods while 40 per cent is due to heavy rainfall and cyclones.
• Damage by Himalayan rivers account for 60% of the total damage in the country.
• Flood occurs when water overflows or inundates land that’s normally dry.
• Excessive rain, a ruptured dam or levee, rapid ice melting in the mountains, or even an unfortunately placed beaver dam can overwhelm a river and send it spreading over the adjacent land, called a floodplain.
• Flooding is a natural phenomenon because the rivers in the Northeast, mostly originating in the Eastern Himalayas, experience a sharp fall in gradient as they move from Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan to reach Assam’s floodplain.
• Most of these rivers carry large amounts of sediments, which then get deposited on the floodplains, reducing the storage capacity of the river channels and resulting in inundation of the adjoining floodplains.
• Flooding is partly anthropogenic as the sediment load carried by the rivers is accentuated through “developmental interventions in the Eastern Himalayas that result in deforestation.
• The principal causes of vulnerability include rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, poverty, degradation of the environment resulting mismanagement of the resources, inefficient public policies.

Climate change has played an important role in causing large-scale floods across central India, including the Mumbai floods of 2006 and 2017. During 1901-2015, there has been a three-fold rise in widespread extreme rainfall events, across central and northern India – Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam and parts of Western Ghats – Goa, north Karnataka and South Kerala.The rising number of extreme rain events are attributed to an increase in the fluctuations of the monsoon westerly winds, due to increased warming in the Arabian Sea. This results in occasional surges of moisture transport from the Arabian Sea to the subcontinent, resulting in heavy rains lasting for 2–3 days, and spread over a region large enough to cause floods.

Major flooding in India.

• In October 1943, Madras (now Chennai) saw the worst flood to hit the city. Flood occurred due to excessive rains that lasted for 6 days and overflowed Coovum and the Adyar rivers. Damage caused to life and property was immense however estimate figure is unknown.
• On 11 August 1979, the Machchu-2 dam situated on the Machchhu River burst, thus flooding the town of Morbi in the Rajkot district of Gujarat.Exact figure of loss of lives is unknown, but it is estimated between 1800 and 2500 people.
• In 1987, Bihar state of India witnessed one of its worst floods till then. Flood occurred due to overflow of the Koshi river; which claimed lives of 1,399 humans, 302 animals and public property worth INR ₹68 billion (US$950 million).
• Heavy rains across the state of Maharashtra, including large areas of the metropolis Mumbai which received 944 mm (39.1 inches) alone on 26 July 2005 killed at-least 1,094 people. The day is still remembered as the day Mumbai came to a standstill, as the city faced worst ever rain. Mumbai International Airport remained closed for 30 hours, Mumbai-Pune Expressway was closed for 24 hours with public property loss was estimated at ₹550 crore (US$77 million).
• June 2013 North Indian floods: Heavy rain due to cloudburst caused severe floods and landslides on the North Indian states, mainly Uttarakhand and nearby states. More than 5,700 people were presumed dead.
• June 2015 Gujarat flood: Heavy rain in June 2015 resulted in widespread flood in Saurashtra region of Gujarat resulting in more than 70 deaths. The wildlife of Gir Forest National Park and adjoining area was also affected.
• July 2015 Gujarat flood:Heavy rain in July 2015 resulted in widespread flood in north Gujarat resulting in more than 70 deaths.
• 2015 South Indian floods:Heavy rain in Nov-Dec 2015 resulted in flooding of Adyar, Cooum rivers in Chennai, Tamil Nadu resulting in financial loss and human lives.
• 2016 Assam floods: Heavy rains in July–August resulted in floods affecting 1.8 million people and flooding the Kaziranga National Park killing around 200 wild animals.
• 2017 Gujarat flood: Following heavy rain in July 2017, Gujarat state of India was affected by the severe flood resulting in more than 200 deaths.
• August 2017 Nepal and India floods
• August 2018 Kerala Flood: Following high rain in late July 2018 and heavy Monsoon rainfall from August 8, 2018, severe flooding affected the Indian state of Kerala resulting over 445 deaths.

Drought in India

IMD defines Drought as situation occurring in any area when mean annual rainfall is less than 75% of the normal rainfall.

Drought can be classified into three types according to National commission on agriculture in India. They are agricultural, hydrological and meteorological drought.

1.Meteorological drought: a condition when there is substantial decrease from usual precipitation over an area.

2.Hydrological drought: a condition when there is depletion of subsurface and surface water resources due to prolonged meteorological drought.

3.Agricultural drought: a condition when rainfall and soil moisture is deficient to support healthy growth of crop.

Distribution of drought in India

The distribution of drought in India can be classified under three heads

1. Conditions of extreme drought: It includes 12% of total drought prone areas i.e Gujarat, western Uttar Pradesh, north-west Madhya Pradesh, western Rajasthan.

2. Conditions of severe drought: It covers 42% of total drought prone area i.e leeward side of Maidan plateau, Rayalaseema and Telengana regions of Andhra Pradesh and Marathwada and Vidarbha regions of Maharashtra.

3. Conditions of moderate drought: It prevails over 46% of total drought prone area i.e Orissa, central-north Madhya Pradesh, Chhotanagpur, Jammu and Kashmir and central- east Tamil Nadu.

Cyclones in India

• Intertropical Convergence Zone, may affect thousands of Indians living in the coastal regions.
• Tropical cyclogenesis is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, storm surges, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies.
• In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November. Each year, an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than 63 kilometres per hour (39 mph) form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which have sustained gusts greater than 117 kilometres per hour (73 mph). On average, a major (Category 3 or higher) cyclone develops every other year.
• During summer, the Bay of Bengal is subject to intense heating, giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that produce cyclones. Many powerful cyclones, including the 1737 Calcutta cyclone, the 1970 Bhola cyclone, the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone and the 1999 Odisha cyclone have led to widespread devastation along parts of the eastern coast of India and neighboring Bangladesh.
• Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in exposed Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal.
• India’s western coast, bordering the more placid Arabian Sea, experiences cyclones only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and, less frequently, Kerala.
• In terms of damage and loss of life, Cyclone 05B, a super cyclone that struck Odisha on 29 October 1999, was the worst in more than a quarter-century. With peak winds of 160 miles per hour (257 km/h), it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane. Almost two million people were left homeless; another 20 million people’s lives were disrupted by the cyclone. Officially, 9,803 people died from the storm; unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10,100
• On 20 November 2018, Gaja cyclone affected Tamil Nadu to the greater extent. It made landfall near Nagapattinam. Gaja Eye Crossing at Vedaranyam and eye passes through Thagattur, Voimedu, Thiruuthuraipoondi, Muthupettai, Pattukotai, Adirampattinam and Mallipattinam. Both the Tamil Nadu and Puducherry government made an adverse effect to safeguard the people near coastal and riverside areas.
• About 80,000 were evacuated to 470 relief camps from the districts which were vulnerable to the cyclone in Tamil Nadu. And the tamil nadu government estimated and claimed 1500 crore as relief fund from the central government.

Earthquakes in India

EARTHQUAKE ZONES IN INDIA

Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale.

Zone 5

Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquake in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The region of Kashmir, the Western and Central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North-East Indian region, the Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone.

Generally, the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4

This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, the parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (North Punjab, Chandigarh, Western Uttar Pradesh, Terai, North Bengal, Sundarbans) and the capital of the country Delhi fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koynanagar) is also in zone no-4. In Bihar the northern part of the state like Raxaul, Near the border of India and Nepal, is also in zone no-4.

Zone 3

This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. and also 7.8 The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.

Zone 2

This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10% of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.

Zone 1

Since the current division of India into earthquake hazard zones does not use Zone 1, no area of India is classed as Zone 1.

2015 India/Nepal Earthquake

April 2015 Nepal earthquake was the worst natural disaster of Nepal and major aftershock were also reported from neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and New Delhi. Operation Maitri was the name of rescue and relief operation from India to help Nepal.

2011 Sikkim Earthquake

2011 Sikkim Earthquake was occurred near the border of Nepal and Sikkim, also the earthquake was felt across northeastern India with a moment magnitude of 6.9.

2005 Kashmir Earthquake

2005 Kashmir Earthquake was considered as the deadliest earthquake to hit South Asia with a registered moment magnitude of 7.6.

2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake

2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and tsunami was one of the most devastating natural disaster in India and also deadliest natural disasters in recorded history of 14 countries.

2001 Bhuj Earthquake

2001 Bhuj Earthquake also known as Gujarat earthquake occurred on 26 January 2001 on the Republic Day of India at 08:46 AM IST. The earthquake with a registered moment magnitude of 7.7 destroyed nearly 400,000 homes and damaged millions of structures.

1999 Chamoli Earthquake

1999 Chamoli Earthquake was the strongest earthquake to hit the foothills of the Himalayas and state of Uttarakhand.

1997 Jabalpur Earthquake

1997 Jabalpur Earthquake occurred near Koshamghat village and Jabalpur and Mandla were the worst affected districts.

1993 Latur Earthquake

1993 Latur Earthquake primarily affected the districts of Latur in Maharashtra state of Western India.

1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake

1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake in the Gharwal regions of Uttarakhand .

1941 Andaman Islands Earthquake

1941 Andaman Islands Earthquake primarily struck the Andaman Islands and also near by Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand. Andaman Islands are part of the earthquake, cyclones, tsunamis, floods and home to the only active Volcano in India.

1975 Kinnaur Earthquake

1975 Kinnaur earthquake had a magnitude of 6.8 causing extensive damage in Himachal Pradesh with epicentre in Kinnaur district.

1967 Koynanagar Earthquake

1967 Koynanagar earthquake in Maharashtra occurred near the site of Koyna dam and damaged in Koyana Nagar Township.

1956 Anjar Earthquake

1956 Anjar Earthquake in town of Anjar in Kutch caused maximum damage in Anjar along with largely destroyed houses in Bhuj, Kera and Bhachau.

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