Gupta Empire
Intoduction
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire existing from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to 543 CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 543 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent.
Area
400 est. – 3,500,000 km2
440 est. – 1,700,000 km2
This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some historians. The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king Sri Gupta; the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II alias Vikramaditya. The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.
Government Monarchy
• c. late 3rd century Gupta(first)
• c. 540 – c. 550 CE Vishnugupta
Origins
The Gupta Empire rose to prominence in 320 AD and spread to large parts of northern India, central and small parts of southern India.
The founder of the Gupta dynasty is Sri Gupta.
The original homeland of the Guptas is not known for certain. But they might have originated from Bengal. Some scholars think they are from Prayaga (Allahabad in UP).
They are thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas
Kings:
Early kings
The first ruler was Sri Gupta (reign from 240 AD to 280 AD).
He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (reign: 280 – 319 AD).
Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharaja in inscriptions.
Chandragupta I (Reign: 320 – 335 AD):
Was the son of Ghatotkacha.
Acquired the strategically important Magadha kingdom on marriage to a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from the Ganges River to Prayaga by 321 AD.
He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.
Samudragupta (Reign: 335 – 380 AD) :
Son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi.
Was a military genius and was successful in adding many territories into the Gupta Empire.
The Allahabad inscription describes his bravery as composed by his court poet, Harisena. There it is said that he defeated nine kings of the Ganges Valley, twelve kings from the southern region and eighteen forest tribes.
His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and Godavari Rivers in the south; and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to Brahmaputra River in the east.
He was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism but was tolerant of other faiths. He gave permission to the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
He was also called “Indian Napoleon” by art historian Vincent Smith.
He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifice. Hence, one of his coins refers to him as “the restorer of Ashvamedha.”
He was also called “Kaviraja” since he composed verses.
Chandragupta II (Reign: 380 – 418 AD)
Son of Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi.
He was also known as ‘Vikramaditya’.
He further annexed territories including Saurashtra which gave him the western coastline.
He used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom. He established matrimonial alliances with the Nagas and the Vakatakas. He gave his daughter Prabhapavatigupta in marriage to Vakataka ruler of Maharashtra Rudrasena II.
He also annexed three Satrapa kingdoms and assumed the title Sakari (destroyer of the Sakas). He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III thus acquiring Saurashtra and Kathiawar.
Through the western ports, the kingdom’s prosperity grew through trade links with Roman Empires.
After East and West India, Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers also like the Hunas, Kambojas, Kiratas, etc.
He was a brilliant conqueror and an able administrator as well.
Like his father, he was a Vaishnavite but was tolerant of other religions.
His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari, etc.
His court had nine jewels or Navaratnas, nine people eminent in various fields of art, literature and science. This included the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, Harisena, Amarasimha (lexicographer) and Dhanvantari (physician).
Fa-Hien, a Buddhist from China visited India during his reign. He records the prosperity of the Gupta Empire.y and administration
Other Gupta rulers
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. He ruled till 455 AD.
Kumaragupta I was the founder of the Nalanda University. He was also called Shakraditya.
The last great king of the Gupta dynasty, Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta I. He was able to repulse an attack by the Hunas but this strained his empire’s coffers.
The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skandagupta in 467 AD.
He was followed by many successors.
The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 AD.
Legacy
Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunar eclipses.
Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period.
The Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.
Chess is said to have developed in this period, where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaṅga, which translates as “four divisions [of the military]” – infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry – represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.
Doctors also invented several medical instruments and even performed operations.
The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India.
The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature.
Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.
Art and architecture
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style.
Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.
A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at Sanchi with Maurya foundation, an example of Buddhist architecture. 5th CE.
The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
Dashavatara Temple is a Vishnu Hindu temple built during the Gupta period.
Nalanda university was first established under Gupta empire
Ajanta caves from Gupta era
The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves
Administration
• The various inscriptions mention the following titles as usual for Guptas: Paraniadvaita, Pararnabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Prithvipala, Paramesvara, Samrat, Ekadhiraja and Chakravartin.
• The king was assisted in his administration by a chief minister called mantri or sachiva.
• Pratiharas and Mahapratihart’s were important officers in the royal court, though they did not participate in the administration.
• Among the important military officers are mentioned Senapati, Mahasenapati, Baladhyaksha; Mahabaladhyaksha, Baladhikrita and Mahabaladhikrita who perhaps represented different grades.
• There were two other high military officers – the Bhatasvapati, commander of the infantry and cavalry and the Katuka, commander of the elephant corps.
• Another important official mentioned in the Basarh seals was Ranabhandagaradhikarana, chief of the treasury of the war office.
• One more high officer, mentioned for the first time in the Gupta records, was Sandhivigrahika or Mahasandhivigrahika, a sort of foreign minister.
• One of the inscriptions mentions Sarvadhyakshas, superintendents of all, but it is not clear whether they were central or provincial officers.
• Numerous inscriptions mention Dutaka or Duty who communicated royal commands to officers and people concerned.
• Dandapasadhikarana represented the chief of the police.
• Ordinary police officials were known as Dandapasika, Chatas, Bhatas, Dandika (chastiser), and Chauroddharanika (officer apprehending thieves).
• The king maintained a close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.
• Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from among the princes.
• Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis.
• Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration.
• The villages in the district were under the control of Gramikas.
• Fahien’s account characterises the Gupta administration as mild and benevolent. There were no restrictions on people’s movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There was no state interference in the individual’s life. Punishments were not severe. Imposing a fine was a common punishment. The administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and there was no fear of thieves. He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
• Fahien had also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration as he was able to travel without any fear throughout the Gangetic valley.
• On the whole the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas.
Central Administration
• Maha Mantri (Chief minister) : stood at the head of civil administration.
• Maha-baladhikrta : commander-in-chief
• Sandhivgrahika : the foreign minister
• Maha-dandanayaka : Chief justice
• Maha-asvapati : commander of the calvalry
• Maha-pilupati : commander of elephant
• Maja-ranabhandagarika : Master general of military stores
Social Life
• The pre-Gupta period in India witnessed a series of foreign invasions.
• Indian society had given way to those foreigners who had become permanent residents here.
• But during the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid.
• The Brahmins occupied the top ladder of the society.
• Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale suggest that the brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times.
• The Guptas who were originally vaisyas came to be looked upon as kshatriyas by the brahmanas.
• The brahmanas represented the Gupta kings as possessing the attributes of gods, and the Gupta princes became great supporters of the brahmanical order.
• The brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of numerous land grants and claimed many privileges, which are listed in the law-book of Narada.
• The practice of untouchability had slowly begun during this period.
• Fahien mentions that Chandalas were segregated from the society. Their miserable condition was elaborated by the Chinese traveler.
• The position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period.
• Women were prohibited from studying the religious texts like the Puranas.
• The subjection of women to men was thoroughly regularized, but it was insisted that they should be protected and generously treated by men.
• The practice of Swyamvara was given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls.
• In the sphere of religion, Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two branches – Vaishnavism and Saivism.
• Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites.
• The worship of images and celebration of religious festivals with elaborate rituals made these two religions popular.
• Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period.
• The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Fahien refers to the decline of Buddhism in the Gangetic valley.
• But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu were patronized by Gupta kings.
• In western and southern India Jainism flourished.
• The great Jain Council was held at Valabhi during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was written.
I
Vakataka dynasty
Intoduction
The Vakataka Empire was a dynasty from the Indian subcontinent that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India.
Preceded by Satavahana dynasty
Government Monarchy Maharaja
• 250–270 Vindhyashakti
• 270–330 Pravarasena I
• 475–500 Harishena
The Vakataka dynasty was a Brahmin dynasty. Little is known about Vindhyashakti (c. 250 – c. 270 CE), the founder of the family. Territorial expansion began in the reign of his son Pravarasena I. It is generally believed that the Vakataka dynasty was divided into four branches after Pravarasena I. Two branches are known and two are unknown. The known branches are the Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch and the Vatsagulma branch. The Gupta emperor Chandragupta II married his daughter into Vakataka royal family and with their support annexed Gujarat from the Saka Satraps in 4th century CE. The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami in Deccan.
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.
Kings:
Vindhyashakti (Reign: 250 – 270 AD)
The founder of the dynasty was Vindhyashakti, whose name is derived from the name of the goddess Vindhya. The dynasty may be originated there. Almost nothing is known about Vindhyashakti, the founder of the Vakatakas. In the Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta, he was described as the banner of the Vakataka family and a Dvija. It is stated in this inscription that he added to his power by fighting great battles and he had a large cavalry. But no regal title is prefixed to his name in this inscription. The Puranas say that he ruled for 96 years. He was placed variously at south Deccan, Madhya Pradesh, and Malwa.
Pravarasena I (Reign: 270– 330AD):
The next ruler was Pravarasena I (270-330), who maintained the realm as a great power, he was the first Vakataka ruler, who called himself a Samrat (universal ruler) and conducted wars with the Naga kings. He has become an emperor in his own right, perhaps the only emperor in the dynasty, with his kingdom embracing a good portion of North India and whole of Deccan. He carried his arms to the Narmada in the north and annexed the kingdom of Purika which was being ruled by a king named Sisuka. In any case, he certainly ruled from Bundelkhand in the north to the present Andhra Pradesh in the south.
Branches of Vakataka dynasty
It is generally believed that the Vakataka ruling family was divided into four branches after Pravarasena I. Two branches are known and two are unknown. The known branches are the Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch and the Vatsagulma branch.
He was also called “Kaviraja” since he composed verses.
Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch
The Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch ruled from various sites like Pravarapura (Paunar) in Wardha district and Mansar and Nandivardhan (Nagardhan) in Nagpur district. This branch maintained matrimonial relations with the Imperial Guptas.
Rudrasena I
Not much is known about Rudrasena I, the son of Gautamiputra, who ruled from Nandivardhana, near Ramtek hill, about 30 km from Nagpur. There is a mention of Rudradeva in the Allahabad pillar inscription, bundled along with the other rulers of Aryavarta.
Prithivishena I
Rudrasena I was succeeded by his son named Prithivishena I (355-380), and Prithivishena I was succeeded by his son named Rudrasena II.
Rudrasena II, Divakarasena and Pravarasena II
Rudrasena II (380–385) is said to have married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of the Gupta King Chandragupta II (375-413/15). Rudrasena II died fortuitously after a very short reign in 385 CE, following which Prabhavatigupta (385 – 405) ruled as a regent on behalf of her two sons, Divakarasena and Damodarasena (Pravarasena II) for 20 years. During this period the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta Empire. Many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta age.
Narendrasena and Prithivishena II
Pravarasena II was succeeded by Narendrasena (440-460), under whom the Vakataka influence spread to some central Indian states. Prithivishena II, the last known king of the line, succeeded his father Narendrasena in c. 460. After his death in 480, his kingdom was probably annexed by Harishena of the Vatsagulma branch.
Vatsagulma branch
Sarvasena
Sarvasena (c. 330 – 355) took the title of Dharmamaharaja. He is also known as the author of Harivijaya in Prakrit which is based on the story of bringing the parijat tree from heaven by Krishna. This work, praised by later writers is lost. He is also known as the author of many verses of the Prakrit Gaha Sattasai. One of his minister’s name was Ravi. He was succeeded by his son Vindhyasena.[10][unreliable source?][11]
Vindhyasena
Vindhysena (c. 355 – 400) was also known as Vindhyashakti II. He is known from the well-known Washim plates which recorded the grant of a village situated in the northern marga (sub-division) of Nandikata (presently Nanded) in his 37th regnal year. The genealogical portion of the grant is written in Sanskrit and the formal portion in Prakrit. This is the first known land grant by any Vakataka ruler. He also took the title of Dharmamaharaja.[12][unreliable source?] Vindhyasena defeated the ruler of Kuntala, his southern neighbour. One of his minister’s name was Pravara. He was succeeded by his son Pravarasena II.[10][unreliable source?]
Pravarasena II
Pravarasena II (c. 400 – 415) was the next ruler of whom very little is known except from the Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta, which says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. He died after a very short rule and succeeded by his minor son, who was only 8 years old when his father died.
Devasena
This unknown ruler was succeeded by his son Devasena (c. 450 – 475). His administration was actually run by his minister Hastibhoja.
Harishena
Harishena (c. 475 – 500) succeeded his father Devasena. He was a great patron of Buddhist architecture, art and culture. The World Heritage monument Ajanta Caves is surviving example of his works. The rock cut architectural cell-XVI inscription of Ajanta states that he conquered Avanti (Malwa) in the north, Kosala (Chhattisgarh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and Kuntala (Southern Maharashtra) in the south.
I
Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty
Intoduction
The Gurjara-Pratiharas, or simply, the Pratiharas (8th century CE – 11th century CE) held their sway over western and northern India. This dynasty saw its fortunes rising under Nagabhata I (730–760 CE) who successfully defeated Arab invaders. Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja (c. 836-885 CE) was the most well-known king of this dynasty. The Pratiharas were known chiefly for their patronage of art, sculpture and temple-building, and for their continuous warfare with contemporary powers like the Palas (8th century CE – 12th century CE) of eastern India and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty (8th century CE – 10th century CE) of southern India.
Rise of the Gurjara-Pratiharas
In 647 CE, the fall of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty based at Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj city, Uttar Pradesh state) under Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) led to chaos and political instability. Many kingdoms rose and fell, and those which came to dominate were those of the Pratiharas, the Palas of eastern India and the Rashtrakutas of southern India. Kanyakubja was ruled at the time by the Ayudha dynasty (c. 9th century CE).
The origins of the Gurjaras and particularly the Gurjara-Pratiharas are still a matter of debate. The Gurjaras are variously seen as a foreign people gradually assimilated into Indian society, or as the local people who belonged to the land called Gurjara (Gurjaradesha or Gurjaratra), or as being a tribal group. The Pratiharas, who derived their name from the word pratihara (Sanskrit: “doorkeeper”) are seen as a tribal group or a clan of the Gurjaras. In the epic Ramayana, Prince Lakshmana acted once as a doorkeeper to his elder brother King Rama. Since Lakshmana was regarded as their ancestor, the Pratiharas adopted this title. Various other Gurjara families started out as local officials and eventually set up small principalities to the south and east of the area of Jodhpur in modern-day Rajasthan state.
The Pratiharas rose to fame in the late 8th century CE after successfully resisting Arab invaders. Besides inscriptions, the sculpture created and monuments built during their reign provide valuable evidence of their times and rule. Primary literary sources include the accounts of Arab merchants who visited India in this period like Suleiman (c. 9th century CE) who visited India in the 9th century CE and left behind an account of his travels, and al-Masudi (c. 10th century CE), who visited Gujarat in 915-16 CE. All these writers refer to the Paratihara Kingdom as al-Juzr (derived from the Sanskrit Gurjara) and attest “to the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire” (Chandra, 10).
Pratihara Kings
Nagabhata I
He was the first significant king of the dynasty and because of his achievements that included the defeat of the Arabs, his line came to overshadow other Gurjara-Pratihara families. He fought against the Rashtrakutas, though unsuccessfully. He was succeeded by his nephew Kakustha, who in turn was followed by his brother Devaraja. These two ruled in the period c. 760-775 CE.
Vatsaraja
Able to defeat the Bhandi or Bhatti clan, Vatsaraja (775-800 CE) gained sway over most of central Rajasthan. He then dabbled in Kanyakubja politics, defeated the Palas and secured the throne for his Ayudha nominee. Dhruva Rashtrakuta dealt him a serious blow, capturing the insignia of royalty that Vatsaraja had captured from the Palas, and drove him to seek shelter in the deserts of Rajasthan.
Nagabhata II
Vatsaraja’s son Nagabhata II (800-833 CE) tried to restore the lost fortunes of the dynasty. He subdued the kingdoms of Sindh (now in present-day Pakistan) and those in eastern India and later defeated the Palas. His further conquests were over the kings ruling different portions of Gurjaradesha in western India, including the Arabs. Nagabhata engaged in conflict with the Rashtrakutas over the control of Gujarat and was eventually defeated by the Rashtrakuta Govinda III (793-814 CE), losing thereby south Gujarat and Malwa. After a time, able to regain his strength, he managed to recover some of his lost territories. He also captured Kanyakubja, ending the Ayudha rule. This city now became the Pratihara capital. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra (833-836 CE), whose rule saw some territorial recovery.
Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja
Grandson of Nagabhata II, he ruled for nearly 50 years. Though initially defeated by the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and the Kalachuris, he managed to gather his forces and launch a counterstrike. He defeated the Palas, and possibly even the Rashtrakutas with the help of his Chedi and Guhila feudatories. He managed to annex many parts of the Pala Empire in eastern India and recovered territories in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, thus extending his empire to a considerable extent.
Mahendrapala I
Mahendrapala I (885-910 CE) maintained the empire established by his father Bhoja and made fresh conquests in the east. He lost to the king of Kashmir and ceded to him some territories in Punjab. His death was followed by a civil war between his son Mahipala and his half-brother Bhoja II.
Mahipala I
Mahipala I (c. 912-944 CE) managed to secure the throne but was defeated by the Rashtrakutas, which enabled the Palas to take advantage of the situation and retake some of their former territories from the Pratiharas. Mahipala tried to recover from these losses and did regain some lost lands but his plans of conquest were checked in the later years once more by the Rashtrakutas.
Mahendrapala II (c. 944-948 CE) and his successors did not contribute anything significant in their reigns. These kings ruled more like petty kings not much involved in the affairs of the day.
Wars with the Palas & the Rashtrakutas
“The expansion of the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom involved constant conflicts with other contemporary powers such as the Palas and the Rashtrakutas” known as the tripartite struggle (Singh, 658). Much of it had to do with the control over Kanyakubja as “since the days of Harsha, Kanauj was considered the symbol of sovereignty of north India…control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture” (Chandra, 8).
The Ayudhas ruling Kanyakubja were deemed to be weaklings, and the Palas intervened in their politics, supporting one candidate to the throne, and treating the ‘king’ there as a feudatory. The Pratiharas, enemies of the Palas, thus had the excuse to attack Kanyakubja (also known as Mahodaya at the time) and support their own candidate to kingship, and fight the Palas on their behalf as Vatsaraja did.
The Pratiharas met more than their match in the Rashtrakutas, who frustrated their attempts to control the upper Gangetic valley and Malwa. The enmity had begun over the control of Malwa and Gujarat “as early as the middle of the eighth century AD when the Rashtrakuta and Gurjara-Pratihara empires were both just founded” (Sircar, 53). The Rashtrakuta emperors Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE) and Govinda III (793-814 CE) defeated them. Al-Masudi “refers to the Rashtrakuta-Pratihara enmity that was the characteristic feature of the epoch” (Tripathi, 325).
The Rashtrakutas would however never stay to control the north; they would come and go, creating much nuisance for the Pratiharas and all that they had achieved. Historian KM Munshi refers to the Rashtrakutas coming “like a whirlwind from the south” and destroying the Partihara gains. He observes: “With indomitable energy the Pratiharas would then restore the imperial fabric, but equally often the Rashtrakutas, having subdued the south, would march northward to destroy what had been built” (Munshi, 84).
Dhruva’s victory over Vatsaraja enabled the Palas to assert their prominence once more and to install their own nominee on the Kanyakubja throne. However, despite defeats by the Rastrakutas, Nagabhata II and later Bhoja rebuilt their empire with Kanyakubja becoming and remaining the Pratihara capital. The Rashtrakutas continued to engage with and defeat successive Pratihara kings well into the 10th century CE.
Geographical considerations also dictated the hostilities between these far-flung kingdoms. The control over the areas connected by the Ganges river, “the highway of traffic linking up all the country from Bengal to mid-India” (Tripathi, 301) was crucial for any kingdom in order to achieve greater prosperity in terms of commerce and economy. Similarly, the need to control south-western trade routes and seaborne commerce led the Pratiharas to retain control of Gujarat. Geographically far off from their base areas in the south, the Rashtrakutas could not afford to stay for long in the north. Much of their campaigns were of the nature of raids, and carried out for the sake of prestige, for obtaining booty, the desire to garner imperial glory and establish their own pre-eminence over the predominant dynasties in India.
Decline
After Bhoja, the military power of the Pratiharas declined, and they suffered defeat after defeat under successive kings. The Rashtrakutas dealt severe blows in the early 10th century CE when Indra III (915-928 CE) defeated Mahipala and completely devastated Kanyakubja and when Krishna III (939-967 CE) invaded again in 963 CE.
The Rajput feudatories of the Pratiharas were another threat as “the descendants of Mihira Bhoja had little of Gurjaradesha left in their hands, for every one of the feudatories was seeking greater power for himself at the cost of his suzerain” (Munshi, 151). Owing to the political fabric in India at the time, nearly every king when subdued would accept to be a vassal of the conqueror, but would ceaselessly try to gain independence and go for it at the slightest opportunity. The Pratiharas were no exception. The weakening of the central power and attacks on the capital made their feudatories and provincial governors assertive and dying to declare independence. As a result, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to a kingdom covering only the area around Kanyakubja.
The Pratihara kingdom continued its existence in a subdued fashion till the early 11th century CE when it was finally conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks. Their control was however temporary and this area was taken over by Indian rulers, most notably of the Gahadavala Dynasty (c. 1080-1194 CE).
Government
In terms of administration, much of the Gupta Empire‘s (3rd century CE – 6th century CE) and Harshavardhana’s ideas and practices were retained. The king was supreme and was aided by a variety of ministers and officials. Many minor kings and dynasties ruled as vassals of the king and were expected to be loyal, pay a fixed tribute to the king, conclude matrimonial alliances with the royal family and supply troops when needed. Some areas were administered directly by the centre and were divided into provinces (bhukti) and districts (mandala or vishaya). They were, respectively, governed by a governor (uparika) and a district head (vishayapati), who were tasked with collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order with the help of the army units stationed in their areas. The village, as in earlier times, remained the basic unit of administration which was carried out by the headman and other officials, all paid through land grants. However, many vassals always looked forward to becoming independent and often fought against the king like the Paramaras and the Chandellas of modern-day Bundelkhand region (lying in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh).
Despite incessant warfare, the Pratiharas managed to provide stability to their subjects and patronized arts and literature. Al-Masudi says that Juzr had 18,000,000 villages, cities and towns and was about 2000 km in length and 2000 km in breadth. The poet Rajashekhara was associated with Mahendrapala and Mahipala and left behind many works of note. Many Hindu temples and buildings were built, many of which survive even today. “Under the two centuries of Gurjara-Pratihara rule till 1019 AD, the city of Kanauj became one of the greatest centres of art, culture and commerce in the Indian subcontinent” (Sircar, 13).
The loss of Gujarat and the subsequent loss of overseas trade particularly to western Asia affected economic conditions. Billon coins, or coins made from alloys and a majority of base metal content, were issued in the Ganga valley.
Army
“The incessant warfare during the period indicates the importance of coercive power and military might in the politics of the time” (Singh, 551). The Pratiharas, like all other kingdoms in the period, maintained a core army supplemented by mercenaries, allied and feudatory troops.
The Pratiharas were well-known for their cavalry. Horses were imported from Central Asia and Arabia and constituted an important item of Indian trade in this time period. According to al-Masudi, the army had four divisions of 7 million to 9 million each. The northern army was deployed against the Muslims, the southern army against the Rashtrakutas and the eastern against the Palas. The elephants were only 2000 in number, thus showing that the Pratiharas focused more on their horsemen.
The sculpture of the period shows the warriors wearing their long hair in a huge bun at the back of the head, loose or in varying hairstyles, elaborately done. They are mostly bare above the waist, with a cloth band tied horizontally across the chest and tied in a knot at the front. The swords are of various shapes and sizes. Axes, bows, maces and spears were also used. Armours and possibly helmets were used by elites.
The constant losses of the Pratiharas against the Rashtrakutas showed that their reliance on the cavalry was not always worthwhile. The Rashtrakutas deployed superior strategies, and their emperors or princes who personally led the armies showed a vigour that their enemies could not match.
Legacy
Nagabhata I’s efforts were crucial in checking the Arab invasion of India. The Pratiharas remained as strong bulwarks against the Arabs. They also made valuable contributions in the field of art, culture and commerce. The sculptural styles developed during the period were unique and remained an influence on later styles. The nagara style of Hindu temple architecture received a big boost under their rule. According to this style, the temple was built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it, with many regional variations. The highlight was a shikhara (a mountain-like spire on top, curving in shape). This style became very popular in northern India in the following centuries.
I
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Intoduction
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled parts of South India from the 8th to the 10th century CE. At its zenith, their kingdom included the modern state of Karnataka in its entirety along with parts of the current Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Their importance can be gauged from the writings of many Islamic travellers and scholars, especially Al-Masudi and Ibn Khordadbih (10th century CE), who wrote that all the other kings of India at that time prayed to the Rashtrakutas as a higher power and prostrated themselves in reverence before them, such was their influence and impression.
Origin & Rise to Power
The name ‘Rashtrakuta’ in Sanskrit means ‘Country’ (Rashtra) and ‘Chieftain’ (Kuta). This explains their lineage from the time of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great (3rd century BCE) when they were primarily small clan heads in different parts of India. In some of the edicts of Ashoka (in Mansera, Girnar, Dhavali) the word Rathika appears, who may have been the ancestors of the Rashtrakutas. However, though many historians claim that the Rashtrakutas were the earlier Rathikas mentioned in those inscriptions, this theory is not backed up by enough archaeological evidence. Medieval Sanskrit literature reveals fragments of their lineage, which is thought to be from the Mauryan times as small clan heads.
DANTIDURGA MADE THE FINAL ASSAULT ON THE CHALUKYA KING IN 753 CE & THUS ESTABLISHED THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE.
However, their rise began when Dantidurga (also knows as Dantivarman, r. until 756 CE), who was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas, defeated their King Kirtivarman II in 753 CE. Dantidurga’s ascent started from the time when he helped the Chalukyas in their successful war against the incoming Arab army (between 731 and 739 CE). Soon, it became apparent that he was not satisfied in being just a vassal state and started exerting his influence through military aggression. He defeated the kings of Kosala and Kalinga, subdued the Gurjaras of Malwa, defeated other kings of Central India, and made friendship with the Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla of Kanchi by giving his daughter in marriage, before he made the final assault on the Chalukya king in 753 CE and thus established the Rashtrakuta Empire.
Expansion
Dantidurga died without a male heir and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I (r. c. 756 – 773/774 CE). Krishna I gave the final death nail to their erstwhile masters, the Badami Chalukyas, when he routed them in 757 CE to end that dynasty’s rule. He expanded his kingdom by invading the Ganga territory and defeating them, by subjugating the Konkan territories and sending his own son to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi and accepting their submission without a fight. Krishna I is also culturally very important in the history of India because he was the man behind the construction of the exquisite Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage site now).
Krishna I was succeeded by his eldest son Govinda II (r. c. 774-780 CE). Govinda II’s military adventures include his journey to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom upon instruction of his father and also helping a certain Ganga king in securing the throne from his brother. How he came to his end in life is not known but he was overthrown by his younger brother Dhruva Dharavarsha.
The ascension of Dhruva Dharavarsha (r. 780-793 CE) marks the golden period of the Rashtrakutas. He started his military conquests, first of all, by punishing all the kings who were friendly to his elder brother, and then venturing into the imperial Kannauj and defeating its king. Dhruva then defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara Kingdom of Central India and the Pala Kingdom of Eastern India which was centred around present-day Bengal, and thus with him started the tripartite struggle between the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pala Dynasty to control the main heartland of India. The battle for Kannauj (located in modern-day Uttar Pradesh state) is one of the most important events in the medieval history of India. His other victories include subjugating the Vengi king who could only ensure peace by offering his own daughter in marriage to Dhruva Dharavarsha. He had also successfully moved against the Pallavas of Kanchi (present-day Tamil Nadu) and their immediate neighbours, the Western Ganga Dynasty.
Govinda III (r. 793-814 CE) succeeded his father Dhruva, and though he came to power through a family feud, soon proved to be militarily the most powerful emperor of this dynasty. Though Dhruva had successfully moved into North India in his time, he had not gained many lands. Govinda III rectified that by expanding his kingdom from Kannauj to the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari now) and from the east of India from Banaras, Bengal etc. to the west of India mainly to the Gujarat territories, and thus on his way defeating numerous kings and rulers like the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II, King Dharmapala of the Pala Empire, Pallava Dantivarman, Cholas, Pandyas, Vishnuvardhana IV of Vengi, and several others. Even the King of Ceylon (current-day Sri Lanka) admitted his own subjugation and continued as a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas by paying time to time tributes to them.
AMOGHAVARSHA I WAS A SCHOLAR KING UNDER WHOM THE ART, LITERATURE, & CULTURE OF THE KINGDOM FLOURISHED.
Next in line was the greatest of all the Rashtrakuta kings, Govinda III’s son, Amoghavarsha I, also called Nripatunga (c. 814-878 CE). He ascended the throne at a very early age due to the death of his father in 814 CE but could not hold real power as an emperor until 821 CE. He was a scholar king under whom the art, literature, and culture of the kingdom flourished. He himself endorsed and wrote landmark pieces in both the Kannada and Sanskrit languages. He also made Manyakheta (Malkhed in Karnataka now) the centre of the empire by which they are known today as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
Amoghavarsha I ruled for almost 64 years, and though he faced many wars and battles, by temperament he was a peace-loving ruler. He preferred friendly relations with his feudatories over war and used marriages and other amiable gestures to secure their loyalty. Being a lover of art and scholarship, scientists prospered under his rule and his kingdom was adorned with beautiful and intricate artworks and architecture all around. He also equally patronised Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, but many scholars are of the opinion that personally he probably followed Jainism.
After Amoghavarsha I came various rulers (like Krishna II, Indra III, Amoghavarsha II, Govinda IV, Amoghavarsha III, Krishna III, Khottiga Amoghavarsha, Karka II, and Indra IV) with mixed successes. One of the notable successes was that of King Indra III (r. 915-928 CE), who captured Kannauj in the early 10th century (c. 916 CE). Inscriptions in temples in Tamil Nadu and its surroundings reveal that King Krishna III (r. 939-967 CE) invaded the Chola territory and defeated the Chola army decisively in the 10th century CE.
Government, Administration, & Military
The Rashtrakutas divided their kingdom into various provinces, and the provinces were further divided into districts. The kings or emperors of the Rashtrakutas were followed in hierarchy by a Chief Minister who had a cabinet of ministers and different army personnel under him. All the ministers had to undergo military training and be ready for war at any moment. The empire had a mighty army who were always kept ready, especially in their capital city for any incursion or invasion. It was divided into three units; infantry, cavalry, and elephants. It was always diligently trained and kept in proper shape all the time. Feudatory kingdoms would pay tributes, and in case of a special warlike situation or a natural calamity, the administration would also exact some special taxes to meet the expenses, but not at the cost of the happiness and well-being of its subjects. However, the precarious balance that the Rashtrakutas had to maintain between war and well-being, between defence and invasion, between expansion and their administration, ultimately led to their decline.
Society
The subjects of the Rashtrakuta Empire looked up to their emperor or king as the ultimate authority who was expected to look after them and uphold the current social justice, order, and peace. However, for day-to-day matters, there were guilds or co-operatives who would decide on any disputes as per the prevalent custom, and if the case could not be solved, then it was brought to the notice of a higher authority. These guilds generally followed the prevailing rules and regulations of a particular group or caste and would deviate only under special circumstances.
The society was divided into various castes based on profession. The prevailing castes had their own sets of rules, regulations, and customs, which they followed quite diligently. They also followed ancient orthodoxy. However, due to the Rashtrakuta rulers being tolerant towards all religions, society was generally accommodative of adherents of various faiths.
Trade, Commerce, & Economy
The South Indian and the Deccan region was not as fertile as the Ganges valley, but the Malabar coast and other areas still yielded enough agricultural produce to take care of the food supplies. Further, due to the incursion and expansion of the empire to Kannauj and other central and North Indian plains, the food supplies augmented from time to time. As the Kannada states were rich in mineral resources and the coastal areas were controlled by the Rashtrakutas, the export of Indian silk and cotton to Arabia, Persia, and other countries was unlimited. Jewellery and ivory were other important products of the empire while import included Arabian horses. Rulers issued gold and silver coins.
Religion & Language
Kannada is one of the most important languages in current-day India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who made it popular and a tool of day-to-day communication, though the language had already been in use for a long time. They also patronised Sanskrit which was actually a language of the elite. Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in composing groundbreaking works in both languages, and his Kavirajamarga was an important milestone in Kannada poetry. His work in Sanskrit became widely acclaimed and was read in other Asian countries as well. Amoghavrasha I was said to have endorsed Jainism and so a lot of Jain scholars flourished in his court, including the. Jain mathematician Mahavirachariya. In Kannada, Adikabi Pampa and Sri Ponna flourished and are now considered to be iconic contributors to the language.
Art & Architecture
The Rashtrakutas were instrumental in establishing an aesthetic architectural form now known as the Karnata Dravida style. The stunning Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a rock-cut structure) is the epitome of Rashtrakuta architectural achievement, but many of the caves of Ellora and Elephanta (in present-day Maharashtra state) have also been created and renovated under the supervision of the Rashtrakutas. Another UNESCO World Heritage Site, the temples at Pattadakal also came under the sway of the Rashtrakutas after the defeat of the Chalukyas and were subsequently renovated and expanded by the Rashtrakutas. The Jain Narayana Temple is said to be solely created by the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
Decline & Legacy
The decline of the Rashtrakutas began from the reign of Khottiga Amoghavarsha who was defeated and killed by a Paramara dynasty ruler in 972 CE, with the capital Manyakheta plundered and destroyed, thus putting a severe dent to the prestige of the dynasty. The last ruler of the kingdom, Indra IV took his own life in 982 CE by performing a Jaina ritual called Sallekhana, which is a practice of fasting to death.
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty came to an end, but their impact remained. The parts of their kingdom were annexed by the later Cholas and other dynasties, but their system of government and several other cultural practices were also followed by the subsequent empires. Culturally, the temples at Pattadakal or the Ellora structures, and numerous medieval literary works bear testimony to the fine tastes of the Rashtrakutas and their patronage.
Source:Saurav Ranjan Datta (29 August 2019). Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Retrived on December 9, 2019 from https://www.ancient.eu/Rashtrakuta_Dynasty/
I
Chalukya dynasty
Intoduction
The Chalukya dynasty was a Classical Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the “Badami Chalukyas”, ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.
Major Effect
The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called “Chalukyan architecture”. Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw the patronage of Telugu literature under the Eastern Chalukyas.
Origin
While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay, D.C. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh and Karmarkar is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modern Karnataka region.
Periods in Chalukya history
The Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the “Chalukyas of Badami” (also called “Early Chalukyas”), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the “Chalukyas of Kalyani” (also called Western Chalukyas or “Later Chalukyas”) and the “Chalukyas of Vengi” (also called Eastern Chalukyas).
Chalukyas of Badami
In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindhyas – the Deccan and Tamilaham. The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.
Pulakeshin I (543)
The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543. Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as “Chalukyas of Badami”. They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
Pulakeshin II
Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya, commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty. He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history. His queens were princess from the Alupa Dynasty of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad, clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships. Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the south-eastern Deccan. Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, “the great hero”, died fighting.
Vikramaditya I (696–733)
The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years. It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title “Rajamalla” (lit “Sovereign of the Mallas” or Pallavas). The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.
Vikramaditya II (733–744)
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. During his reign Arab intruders of the Umayyad Caliphate invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule but the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Pulakesi, a Chalukya governor of Navsari. He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler. The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga in 753. At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.
Chalukyas of Kalyani
The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century[79][80] while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.
Tailapa II
Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 (Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II, re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire. The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas, and with their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty. Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the original Saka era and established the Vikrama Era. Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era. Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.
The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature. They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire, the Pandyas, the Kakatiya and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.
Chalukyas of Vengi
Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621. Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Visakhapatnam.
After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas. Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.
The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava’s two sons took refuge in the Chola kingdom. Choda Bhima’s invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I. This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.
Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language.[100] Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.
Administration and Society
The Chalukyas had great maritime power.
They also had a well-organised army.
Though the Chalukya kings were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
Saw great developments in Kannada and Telugu literature.
Sanskrit along with the local languages thrived. An inscription dated 7th century mentions Sanskrit as the language of the elite whereas Kannada was the language of the masses.
Art and Architecture
They developed Vesara style, reached its peak under Rashtrakuta and Hoysalas. Strutural temples at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture is exemplified in Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik.
Chalukyan painting – Badami cave temple and Ajanta caves (including reception to Persian embassy depicted in Ajanta painting).
1. Aihole temples of Chalukya Dynasty: (town of temples because 70 temples)
Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple) with low, flat roof with pillared hall.
Durga temple resembling a Buddhist Chaitya .
Huchimalligudi temple
Jain temple/ Jinendra at Meguti by Ravikirti.
2. Badami temples of Chalukya Dynasty:
Muktheeswara temple and Melagulti Sivalaya. There are four rock-cut temples at Badami.
3. Pattadakal temples of Chalukya Dynasty:
There are total ten temples in Pattadakal.
Four temples in Northern Nagara style – Papanatha temple
Six temples in Dravidian style – Sangamesvara temple, Virupaksha temple( it is like Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram).
I
Pallava dynasty
6th to 9th centuries.
The Pallavas emerged as a formidable power in the South around the 4th century AD and were at the height of their power in the seventh century AD. They were able to sustain their rule for about 500 years. They built great cities, centres of learning, temples and sculptures and influenced a large part of Southeast Asia in culture.
Origin
The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several theories propounded by historians.
Some historians say they are a branch of the Pahlavas of the Parthians who moved to the South.
Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern region and were a mix of various tribes.
Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around the Tondaimandalam region near Madras.
Another theory says that they are descendent from a Chola prince and a Naga princess of Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD. By the 7th century AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India vying for supremacy namely the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
Extent
The Pallava capital was Kanchipuram.
Their territories at the height of their powers extended from northern part of Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the South.
During the seventh century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state by the authority of the Pallavas.
Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman who defeated the Chalukyas.
The Kalabhra uprising was crushed by the Pandyas, Chalukyas and the Pallavas jointly. The Kalabhras were protesting against the numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas made by the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties.
Political History
• Sirnhavishnu (560-90)
• He is considered the first important Pallava ruler, though Pallavas existed even during the time of Samudragupta’s invasion of south India.
• He is credited with capturing the territory of the Cholas and humiliating his other southern neighbours including Ceylon.
• He followed Vaishnavism, as is evident from archaeological evidence.
• Mahendravarman I (590-630)
• During his reign began the long drawn out struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.
• He was defeated by Pulakesin II and a part of his kingdom was occupied.
• Narasimhavarman I (630-68)
• He is considered the greatest of the Pallava rulers and is credited with repelling the second invasion of Pulakesin II, killing him and capturing the Chalukyan capital, Badami. Hence he assumed the title of `Vatapikonda’ (Conqueror of Vatapi).
• He also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, thus becoining supreme in south India.
• He sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and helped his ally, a Ceylonese prince, to capture the throne of Ceylon.
• He was a great builder having constructed Mamallapuram and the various buildings in it.
• Another significant thing about his reign was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to Kanchi.
• Mahendravarman II (668-70)
• He ruled for a very short period, since he was killed by Chalukya king, Vikramaditya I (son of Pulakesin II).
• Paramesvaravarman 1 (670-700)
• He had to face the invading forces of Vikramaditya I, but finally succeeded in defeating and driving them back after repeated efforts.
• Narasimhavarman II (100-28)
• His rule is marked by peace and prosperity, literary activity, and the construction of large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.
• He is also said to have sent embassies to China; and maritime trade flourished during his reign.
• Paramesvaravarman II (728-31)
• The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign.
• The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked the Pallava capital and Paramesvaravarman had to conclude a humiliating treaty with him.
• When the Pallava ruler tried to retaliate, he was killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.
• Nandivarman II (731-96)
• The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II again invaded and captured the Pallava capital during his reign, but Vikramaditya showed consideration and restraint in treating the vanquished, the only instance of restraint in the whole of the suicidal Chalukya-Pallava conflict, and withdrew from Kanchi without destroying it.
• Nandi soon strengthened himself and defeated the Chalukya ally, the Gangas. But he had to meet defeat at the hands of the Pandyas. And after this defeat, he concentrated on domestic matters.
• He was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning.
• During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were constructed.
• Successors of Nandivarman II were Dantivarman (796-847), Nandivarman III (847-69), Nripatunga (869-99) and Aparajita (899-903).
• The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola by defeating Aparajita Pallava towards the end of the ninth century AD.
• However, the Pallava chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century AD as feudatories.
Administration of the Pallavas
• The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.
• The Pallava state was divided into Kottams.
• The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.
• The king was at the centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers.
• The king was the fountain of justice.
• The king maintained a well-trained army.
• The king provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya.
• It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands. A number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings.
• The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
• Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions.
• Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue.
• The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.
• Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the government.
• The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their committees.
• They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed temples.
Society under the Pallavas
• The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
• The caste system became rigid.
• The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.
• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi. The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two religions.
Education and Literature
• The Pallavas were great patrons of learning and their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.
• The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.
• The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
• Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi.
• Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another Sanskrit writer adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.
• Mahendravaraman I composed the Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam.
• Tamil literature had also developed and the Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil.
• The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent the religious literature of the Pallava period.
• Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in Tamil.
• Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
• Music and dance also developed during this period.
Religion
• The Pallavas were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their patronage was responsible for the great reformation of the medieval ages.
• Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Siva, the exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman who were worshippers of Vishnu.
• Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by the famous Saivite saints of the age.
• Besides worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other Hindu gods.
• Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. However, some of the sects like Buddhism were losing their former glory to Saivism.
• The Vedic tradition in general bossed over the local tradition. Sankaracharya in fact gave this stimulus to Vedic tradition.Tamil saints of the sixth and seventh centuries AD were the progenitors of the bhakti movement.
• The hymns and sermons of the Nayanars (Saivite saints) and Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) continued the tradition of bhakti.
• Saivite saints were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, and others. Most remarkable thing about this age was the presence of women saints such as Andal (an Alvar).
Pallava Art and Architecture
• The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the Pallava rule.
• It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural temples.
• The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.
• Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.
• The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram. Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments. The five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of temple architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
• In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples. These temples were built by using the soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest architectural master piece of the Pallava art.
• The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.
• The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
• Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this period.
• The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.
• The minute details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures of lice-picking monkey, elephants of huge size and the figure of the ‘ascetic cat’ standing erect show highly evovled sculpture era.
Fine Arts
• Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.
• The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
• The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.
• The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.
• Dance and drama also developed during this period.
• The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.
• The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.
Spread of Indian Culture
• Pallavas were also instrumental in spreading Indian culture in South-East Asia.
• Till the eighth century AD Pallava influence was predominant in Cambodia. Saivism enjoyed official patronage in these countries.
• The Pallava type of sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam.
Pala Empire
Intoduction
The Pala Empire was an imperial power during the Late Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal (modern-day Bangladesh and West Bengal). It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix of Pala (“protector” in Sanskrit). They were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750 CE. The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of Vikrampura, Pataliputra, Gauda, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramvati (Varendra), Tamralipta and Jaggadala.
The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal. They built grand temples and monasteries, including the Somapura Mahavihara, and patronised the great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule. The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Abbasid coinage found in Pala archaeological sites, as well as records of Arab historians, point to flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts.
At its height in the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent, with its territory stretching across parts of modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The empire reached its peak under Emperors Dharmapala and Devapala. The Palas also exerted a strong cultural influence under Atisa in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Kannauj and were defeated. After a short lived decline, Emperor Mahipala I defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa and Kalinga. The empire was considerably weakened by the 11th century, with many areas engulfed in rebellion.
The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, ending the reign of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts, most notably in the sculpture and architectural spheres. They laid the basis for the Bengali language, including its first literary work, the Charyapada. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.
Origin & Rise to Power
After the fall of Shashanka’s kingdom, the Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this situation as matsya nyaya (“fish justice” i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended the throne as the first Pala king during these times.
Expansion under Dharmapala and Devapala
Gopala’s empire was greatly expanded by his son Dharmapala and his grandson Devapala. Dharmapala was initially defeated by the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja. Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for the Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern India. He defeated Indrayudha of Kannauj, and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty. Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja’s son Nagabhata II, who conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to Munger and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek alliance with the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III, who then intervened by invading northern India and defeating Nagabhata II. The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He adopted the title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.
Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala ruler. His expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (present-day Assam) where the king submitted without giving a fight and the Utkala (present-day Orissa) whose king fled from his capital city. The inscriptions of his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are highly exaggerated.
The first period of decline
Following the death of Devapala, the Pala empire gradually started disintegrating. Vigrahapala, who was Devapala’s nephew, abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala’s son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his reign, the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha defeated the Palas. Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles and the Sailodbhavas established their power in Orissa.
Naryanapala’s son Rajyapala ruled for at least 12 years, and constructed several public utilities and lofty temples. His son Gopala II lost Bengal after a few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. The next king, Vigrahapala II, had to bear the invasions from the Chandelas and the Kalachuris. During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of Harikela (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed the title Maharajadhiraja, and established a separate kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty. The Gauda state (West and North Bengal) was ruled by the Kamboja Pala dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty also bore names ending in the suffix -pala (e.g. Rajyapala, Narayanapala and Nayapala). However, their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view is that they originated from a Pala official who usurped a major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital.
Revival under Mahipala I
Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 988 CE. He also recovered the northern part of the present-day Burdwan division. During his reign, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023 CE to get Ganges water and in the process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under Mahipala I of the Pala Dynasty. Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king “elephants of rare strength, women and treasure”. Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar, probably aided by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which could have been Mahipala I.
Second period of decline
Nayapala, the son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar Atiśa. During the reign of Nayapala’s son Vigrahapala III, Karna once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a peace treaty, and Vigrahapala III married Karna’s daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III was later defeated by the invading Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. The invasion of Vikramaditya VI saw several soldiers from South India into Bengal, which explains the southern origin of the Sena Dynasty. Vigrahapala III also faced another invasion led by the Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of invasions considerably reduced the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign.
Mahipala II, the successor of Vigrahapala III, brought a short-lived reign of military glory. His reign is well-documented by Sandhyakar Nandi in Ramacharitam. Mahipala II imprisoned his brothers Ramapala and Surapala II, on the suspicion that they were conspiring against him. Soon afterwards, he faced a rebellion of vassal chiefs from the Kaibarta (fishermen). A chief named Divya (or Divvoka) killed him and occupied the Varendra region. The region remained under the control of his successors Rudak and Bhima. Surapala II escaped to Magadha and died after a short reign. He was succeeded by his brother Ramapala, who launched a major offensive against Divya’s grandson Bhima. He was supported by his maternal uncle Mathana of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as several feudatory chiefs of south Bihar and south-west Bengal. Ramapala conclusively defeated Bhima, and killing him and his family in a cruel manner.
Revival under Ramapala
Maitreya and scenes from the Buddha’s life. Folios were probably from the Pala period under Ramapala, considered the last great ruler of the Pala dynasty.
After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive the Pala empire with limited success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty’s end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of present-day Orissa; the Gangas managed to annexe the region only after his death. Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check, but lost Mithila to a Karnataka chief named Nanyuadeva. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through a matrimonial alliance.
Final decline
Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala’s reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, but after Kumarapala’s death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom. According to Ramacharitam, Kumarapala’s son Gopala III was murdered by his uncle Madanapala. During Madanapala’s rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared independence, and the Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. A ruler named Govindapala ruled over the Gaya district around 1162 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about his relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by the Sena dynasty.
Administration
Pala Empire was divided into separate Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.
Literature
The Palas patronised several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials. The Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated during the Pala rule. Besides the Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section above, Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhava-kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the other notable scholars from the Pala period.
The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts on medicine include:
Chikitsa Samgraha, Ayurveda Dipika, Bhanumati, Shabda Chandrika and Dravya Gunasangraha by Chakrapani Datta
Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda and Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara
Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena
Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya
Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana
Sandhyakar Nandi’s semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century) is an important source of Pala history.
A form of the proto-Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapadas composed during the Pala rule
Art and architecture
The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors. It is influenced by the Gupta art.
As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh is a World Heritage Site. It is a monastery with 21 acre (85,000 m²) complex has 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji as fortified castles and were demolished.[citation needed] The art of Bihar and Bengal during the Pala and Sena dynasties influenced the art of Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java.
Legacy of the Pala Dynasty
The Pala Empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th century.
The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh), Odantapuri Monastery.
They also patronised Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda University and the Vikramshila University.
During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary work Charyapada is attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta (the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese, Odia and Maithili.
Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapala.
Buddhist poet Vajradatta who composed Lokesvarashataka was in Devapala’s court.
Many Buddhist teachers from the Pala kingdom travelled to Southeast Asia to spread the faith. Atisha preached in Sumatra and Tibet.
Sanskrit scholars were also patronised by the Pala kings. Gaudapada composed Agama Shastra during the time of the Palas.
The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence is seen in the art of Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.
I
Chola Empire
Introduction
9th to 13th century.
The Cholas: The decline of the Pallavas in the 9th century created a political vacuum which was filled by the Cholas.
Expansion
Vijayalaya Chola (846-907 AD)
He was a vassal of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore from the Pandyas and made it the capital of the Cholas.
Aditya I (871-907 AD)
Extended the work of Vijayalaya by occupying the territories from the Pallavas.
Parantaka Chola I (907-955 AD)
Was the first imperial Chola. He defeated the Pandyans and Shrilankans initially but was later defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. This loss undermined the glory of the Cholas and they entered a dark phase of thirty years from 955 AD – 985 AD.
Raja Raja Chola I (907-1014 AD)
Orchestrated the resurgence of the Cholas. He defeated the Pandyans and the Cheras. In 993 AD when Cheras sought support from the Sri Lankan rulers, the Cholas captured the northern portion of Sri Lanka and the capital-Anuradhapura was captured and they also raided another capital Polonnaruwa. Northern Sri Lanka was organized in the form of a province. Raja Raja Chola is also said to have captured the Laccadive islands and Maldives Islands. He also captured a few territories in Mysore from the Gangas and from the Chalukyas of Kalyani, although he maintained friendly relations with Chalukyas of Vengi.
Raja Raja I developed the naval strength of the Cholas
He re-organised the administrative system
In 1000 Ad he began the conduction of a land survey
He adopted the practice of inscribing the historical inscriptions
He began the practice of associating Yuvaraja or crown Prince with the administration
Raja Raja I being a patron of Shaivism constructed the great Raja Rajeshwar temple (Also called as the Brihadeeswarar temple) at Tanjore.
Rajendra I (1014-44 AD)
is considered as the greatest Chola ruler. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka in 1017 AD and captured the whole of Sri Lanka and made it a part of Chola empire. He suppressed the rebellions of a captured portion of the Krishna Tungabhadra doab. He maintained friendly relations with Chalukyas of Vengi. He launched on expedition to Orissa and maintained matrimonial relations with the Ganga dynasty of Orissa. He then reached Bengal upto Ganga river in 1022 AD and defeated dynasty of Orissa. He then reached Bengal Ganga river in 1022 AD and defeated the Pala ruler of Bengal, Mahipala Rajendra I then assumed the tittle of Gangaikonda and founded a capital by the name Gangaikondacholapuram on the mouths of the Gangaikondacholapuram. His expedition to Bengal along the east coast was undertaken to establish Chola domination over the bay of Bengal that it was called the Chola lake. He had a well organized naval fleet with which he launched an 100 years naval war with Sailendra rulers of Sumatra. He sent two embassies to China for Promoting trade and commerce.
Chola Administration
King: was the most important person in the Chola administration. All authority rested in his hands. He often went on tours in order to keep better touch with the administration . The king was aided and advised by a council of ministers who held office at the pleasure of the king. There was a fully developed secretariat to oversee the functioning of Central administration.
Military Administration: The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of infantry, cavalry and elephants which were called the three limbs of the army. The venetian traveler Marco Polo says that all the bodyguards of the king burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the dead king.
Revenue Administration: The Cholas paid attention to irrigation and used river such as Kaveri for this purpose. Raja Raja I conducted a land survey during his time in order to fix the governments’ share of land revenue. In addition to land tax, income was derived from tolls on trade, taxes on professionals and also from plunder of the neighbouring territories.
Provincial Administration: The Chola empire was divided into 9 provinces called mandalam, each under a governor called Mandala mudalis who were paid salary in the form of lands. They were required to maintain an army out of the resources and maintain peace in their respective territories.
District Administration: The provinces were in turn divided into divided districts called Nadus which were about 500 in number and were run by an autonomous assembly called Nattar.
Local Administration: There were two types of villages at the local in the Chola empire. One type of village consisted of people from different caste and the assembly which ran this type of village was called ‘ur’. The second type of village was ‘agrahara’ types of village which were settled by Brahmins in which most of the land was rent-free. The assembly of this agrahara type of village was a gathering of the adult men in brahmana villages called ‘Sabha’ or ‘mahasabha’. These villages enjoyed a large measure of autonomy. The affairs of the village were managed by an executive committees to which educated person owning property were elected by drawing lots or by rotation. These members had to retire every three years. These members had to retire every three years. There were other committees for helping in the assessment and collection of land revenue for the maintenance of law and order, justice etc. One of the important Committee was the tank committee which looked after the distribution of water to the fields. The mahasabha could settle new lands and exercise ownership rights over them. It could also raise loans for the village and levy taxes. The self-government enjoyed by the Chola villages was a very fine system. However, the growth of feudalism tended to restrict their autonomy.
Chola Society
Four fold varna system was absent.
Brahmins had many privileges and were exempted from taxation and had control over religious and economics power.
Chola emperors linked themselves to solar and lunar dynasties and claimed Kshatriya status and called themselves as Brahmakshatriyas.
Trading communities claimed Vaishya Status and called themselves as kamati, Vanijiya, Chettiar.
Rest of the society was divided into Sat Sudras (higher) and asat sudras (lower). Sat sudras or higher sudras were consisting of classes like Kaikkolas who were weavers and collected taxes on behalf of temple and also Saliyas who were also weavers and prepared clothes for the royal family. Vellalas who were the dominant peasantry also came under Sat Sudras.
Asat sudras (lower sudras) comprised of paraiyans and chaklians. Untouchability was prevalent in chola Society. Slavery was prevalent in Chola society and slaves were imported. The position of women was a mixed one with the queens called as devis and were respected and honoured, on the other hand devadasi system prevailed and ganikas (prostitutes) also existed in the society.
The Chola society was marked by constant tensions between the Brahmins and Vellalas between the higher castes and untouchables, between the kaikkolas and Sollyas between Velangai (rights Handers) and Idangai (Left handers), between Mudali (land owners) and Adimai (slaves) and between Sharivites and Vaishnavites as is evident by the persecution of the vaishnavite Ramanuja by Chola ruler Kulottunga I.
Trade and Commerce
Trade and commerce flourished under the patronage of Chola emperors. The Cholas developed links all over south India. They then brought Srilanka, South- East Asia and even China under the network of trade. There are references to 72 nagarams and many trade guilds. Most important of these were manigramam, Ayyavolu-500 (Five hundred Lords of Aihole) also called as Ainnuruvar, Nanadesi, Vira Valanjiyar, Vira Balanju and Anjuvannan. Mahablipuram were also known as nagarattars. Trading organisations formed fortified settlements called Erivirpattinams on trunk roads and were protected by army cantonments called Nilaippadai.
Mostly barter system was employed in trade and commerce where even paddy was used as a unit of exchanges of gold coins such as pon, kasu, kalanju were used. Also, silver coins were used.
Some Chola emperors sent embassies to Indonesia, Cambodia and China. The temples in Chola period, apart from religious activity were also centers of development of arts and crafts. Many stone cutters, weavers, potters, oil makers, bronze workers lived in temple complexes. Temples became centers of exchange of commodities. Temples also collected taxes from craftsmen, traders and peasants. Temple received land donations from kings and offerings from religious followers.
Chola Art
Music: Cholas contributed to the growth of both vocal and instrumental music. Instruments such as Kudamula, Vina, Flute were used. Devadasis were expert musicians and singers.
Dance: Bharatanatyam acquired its basis from under Chola patronage based on rules of Bharatamuni in Natyasastra, a book on dance.
Drama: Various plays were enacted in the premises of the temples for the temples for the saka of entertainment of the people.
Paintings: Paintings on the themes of Puranas were painted on the inner walls of the Raja Rajeswara temples and gangaikondacholapuram temple and Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. A painting believed to be that of Marco Polo is in the Raj Raja temple (Brihadeeswarar temple) at Tanjore. Lord Shiva in cosmic dance from with celestial dancers is also found on the walls of Gangaikondacholapuram temple.
Sculpture: Bronze images of Nataraja (the dancing Shiva) are described as the cultural epitome of Chola period and are the best specimen of Chola art.
Chola Architecture
Chief features of Chola architecture are:
(i) Dravidian feature initiated by the Pallavas acquired the classical forms and features under the Cholas such as gopurams, mandapams and Vimanas.
(ii) In the beginning, gopuram features was subdued and vimana features dominated but in the later stages, gopurams overshadowed the Vimanas.
(iii) In the beginning, Vimanas were constructed in the cellular mode as in the Raja Rajeshwar temple (Brihadeewarar temple) at Tanjore where in the Vimana, various storeys were constructed in a graded manner. It had 13 storeys. In the later phase, vimanas began to be constructed in circular concept as in the Nataraj temple at Chidambaram.
(iv) The Brihadeeswarar temple at Tanjore is surrounded by a rectangular wall protected by 8 vimanas which hosed the 8 keepers of directions called Ashtadikpalas. The temple is dedicate to lord Shiva and is known as Dakshimeruvitankar. An enormous Nandi which is the second largest in India, carved out of a single block of granite guards the entrance of the sanctuary. The Brihadeeswarar temple at Tanjore is the Tallest of all the temples in India in the medieval period.
(v) Various public works as cities, roads, irrigation works and artificial tanks were constructed. Rajendra Chola I constructed a city, a water tank and a temple with the same name of Gangaikondacholapuram temple.
Cholas: Religion and Philosophy
(1) With the rise of devotional cults such as Shaivite and Vaishnavite cults from the 6th to 9th centuries A.D Buddhism practically disappeared from tamil country, but Jainism managed to survive.
(2) The Chola ruler were patrons of Shaivism. Raja Raja I assumed the tittle of Shivapada Shekhara and built the Raja Rajeswara temple. (Brihadeeswarar temple) at Tanjore and dedicated it to Lord Shiva.
In the Chola period , Suddashaiva order appeared and the Vellala community supported this order. Kapalikas and Kalamukhas which were shaivaite orders also influenced the people.
(3) The Chola rulers such as Kulottunga I resented Ramunuja who was a Vaishnavite Saint who propounded the concept of Vishistadvaita. Ramanuja was though, successful in broadening the social base of the Vaishnavite Cults.
Literature in the Chola Period
(1) Though Sanskrit was patronized by the Chola emperor, there were non significant original works in the Chola period. Most Sanskrit works were commentaries on older works.
(2) The language from dravidian root such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada started drawing from Sanskrit and began evolving further.
(3) Much work was done in Tamil where Kambana translated the Ramayana from Sanskrit and Began evolving further.
(4) Jayangondar composed Kalingattuparani which is an account of Kulottunga-I’s kalinga war in detail.
(5) Sekkilar composed his famous periya Puranam (Tiruttondar Puranam) during the times of Kulottunga II.
(6) Pugalendi wrote Nalavenba (the tragic story of Nala and Damyanti)
.
Pushyabhuti Dynasty
Intoduction
The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the Pushpabhuti dynasty or Vardhana dynasty, ruled parts of northern India during 6th and 7th centuries. The dynasty reached its zenith under its last ruler Harsha-Vardhana, whose empire covered much of north and north-western India, and extended till Kamarupa in the east and Narmada River in the south. The dynasty initially ruled from Sthanvishvara (modern Thanesar, Haryana), but Harsha eventually made Kanyakubja (modern Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh) his capital, from where he ruled until 647 CE.
Harshacharita by the 7th century poet Bana gives a legendary account of their origin, naming Pushyabhuti as the dynasty’s founder. According to this legend, Pushyabhuti lived in the Srikantha janapada (modern Kurukshetra district), whose capital was Sthanvishvara (modern Thanesar). A devotee of Shiva, Pushyabhuti became involved in a tantric ritual at a cremation ground, under the influence of Bhairavacharya, a teacher from “the South”. At the end of this ritual, a goddess (identified with Lakshmi) anointed him the king and blessed him as the founder of a great dynasty
Origin
After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India was split into several independent kingdoms. The northern and western regions of India passed into the hands of a dozen or more feudatory states. Prabhakara Vardhana, the ruler of Sthanvisvara, who belonged to the Vardhana family, extended his control over neighbouring states. Prabhakar Vardhana was the first king of the Vardhana dynasty with his capital at Thaneswar. After Prabhakar Vardhana’s death in 605, his eldest son, Rajya Vardhana, ascended the throne. Harsha Vardhana was Rajya Vardhana’s younger brother. This period of kings from the same line has been referred to as the Vardhana dynasty in many publications.
Sources suggest that Harsha, like the Guptas, was a member of the Vaishya Varna. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang mentions an emperor named Shiladitya, who had been claimed to be Harsha.[11] Xuanzang mentions that this king belonged to “Fei-she”. This word is generally translated as “Vaishya” (a varna or social class).
Kings
The following are the known rulers of the Pushyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty, with estimated period of reign (IAST names in bracket):
Pushyabhuti (Puṣyabhuti), possibly mythical
Naravardhana c. 500-525 CE
Rajyavardana 1 c. 525-555 CE
Adityavardhana (Ādityvardhana or Ādityasena), c. 555-580 CE
Prabhakara-vardhana (Prabhākaravardhana), c. 580-605 CE
Rajya-vardhana (Rājyavardhana 2), c. 605-606 CE
Harsha-vardhana (Harṣavardhana), c. 606-647 CE
Harsha
Harsha (c. 590–647 CE), also known as Harshavardhana, was an Indian emperor who ruled North India from 606 to 647 CE. He was a member of the Vardhana dynasty; and was the son of Prabhakarvardhana who defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king of Thanesar, present-day Haryana. At the height of Harsha’s power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East till Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh state) his capital, and ruled till 647 CE. Harsha was halted by the south Indian Emperor Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty, when Harsha tried to expand his Empire into the southern peninsula of India.
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity. His biography Harshacharita (“Deeds of Harsha”) written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar, besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (white mansion).
Harsha is widely believed to be the author of three Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika.[22] While some believe (e.g., Mammata in Kavyaprakasha) that it was Bana, Harsha’s court poet who wrote the plays as a paid commission, Wendy Doniger is “persuaded, however, that king Harsha really wrote the plays … himself.”
Reign
As North India reverted to small republics and small monarchical states ruled by Gupta rulers after the fall of the prior Gupta Empire, Harsha united the small republics from Punjab to central India, and their representatives crowned him king at an assembly in April 606 giving him the title of Maharaja. Harsha established an empire that brought all of northern India under his control. The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha, and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.
I
Kalachuri dynasty
7th-13th centuries.
Established possibly – 7th century
Disestablished – 13th century
Preceded by Gurjara-Pratiharas
Succeeded by Gahadavala , Chandela , Paramara & Delhi Sultanate
Origin
The Kalachuris of Tripuri , also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. Their core territory included the historical Chedi region (also known as Dahala-mandala), and their capital was located at Tripuri (present-day Tewar near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh).
The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, although one theory connects them to the Kalachuris of Mahishmati. By the 10th century, the Kalachuris of Tripuri had consolidated their power by raiding neighbouring territories and by fighting wars with the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Chandelas and the Paramaras. They also had matrimonial relations with the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
In the 1030s, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva assumed imperial titles after achieving military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers. The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of his son Lakshmikarna, who assumed the title Chakravartin after military campaigns against several neighbouring kingdoms. He also controlled a part of the Paramara and Chandela kingdoms for a brief period.
The dynasty gradually declined after Lakshmikarna, whose successors lost control of their northern territories to the Gahadavalas. Trailokyamalla, the last known ruler of the dynasty, ruled at least until 1212 CE, but it is not certain how and when his reign ended. In the later half of the 13th century, the former Kalachuri territories came under the control of the Paramaras and the Chandelas, and ultimately under the Delhi Sultanate.
Southern Kalachuri Kingdom (1130 – 1184)
They ruled parts of the Deccan extending over regions of present day North Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 A.D. They traced their origins to Krishna, the conqueror of Kalinjar and Dahala in Madhya Pradesh.
Some people say that Bijjala a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over Karnataka. He wrested power from the Chalukya king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama. After 1181 A.D, the Chalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent, although very important from the socio – religious movement point of view. A unique and purely native form of Kannada literature-poetry called the Vachanas was also born during this time. The writers of Vachanas were called Vachanakaras (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita’s Chennabasavapurana, Dharani Pandita’s Bijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni’s Bijjalarayapurana were also written.
The Kalachuris of the south were Jains and encouraged Jainism in their kingdom. The Southern Kaluchuri kingdom went into decline after the assassination of Bijjalla. The rulers who followed were weak and incompetent, with the exception of Sovideva, who managed to maintain control over the kingdom. The Kalachuris are the principal characters in the Andhra epic The battle of Palnadu.
Northern Kalachuri kingdom
They ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in the 12th–13th centuries.
Rulers of the Kalachuri Dynasty
Kokalla I (850-885 AD): He was the founder of this dynasty; Kokalla won Konkan area and helped Rashtrakuta King Krishna II against Chalukyas and Pratiharas. He was married to a Chandella princess and had 18 sons. The eldest son sat upon the throne and other sons were unhappy with this decision, as a result they formed different dynasties.
Samkaragana (878-888AD): He was the eldest son and the successor of Kokalla. He won in fierce battle between a Somavansi rulers of South Kosala. He extended his territory near Ratnapur in Bilaspur District. During his time, there were many matrimony alliances between the Kalachuri’s and the Rashtrakuta’s.
Balaharsha: After Samkaragana the throne was ascended by his two sons Balaharsha and Yuvraja in about the middle of the 10th century AD. Yuvraja defeated and drove out the Rashtrakuta forces. The famous poet Rajasekara staged his drama Viddhasalabhanjika to celebrate this victory. The Kalachuri inscription credit Yuvraja for battles against Kashmir and the Himalayan region.
Yuvaraja I (reigned 915–945): The Kalachuri’s occasionally took part in Rashtrakuta politics, in the period of Yuvaraja I. Between the mid-9th and the early 11th centuries, toward the kingdoms of south Kosala, Kalinga, Gauda, and Vanga; Kalachuri’s practiced the policy of traditional hostility. There were occasional clashes with the Gurjaras, the Chandela’s, the Eastern Chalukyas, and the Gujarat Chalukyas etc.
Lakshmanaraja: Yuvraja’s son Lakshmanaraja, who ruled in second half of the 10th century A.D., was also a great conqueror. He invaded Vangala, south Bengal, and the king of South Kosala; Somavansi was also defeated by him. In the west he invaded Lata, ruled by a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta’s, and defeated the king of Gurjara, the founder of the Chalukya Dynasty.
Samkaragana II and Yuvraja II: Laxmanraja’s two sons, Samkaragana II and Yuvraja II, proved to be unworthy sons of a worthy father. The kingdom experienced various revolts during the reign of last quarter of the 10th century A.D. His uncle Taila II carried on raids into his dominions and defeated him. Talia II was successful in carrying out the power and the prestige of the dynasty by his brilliant military career and became a great power. During the period between Kokalla I and Kokalla II (reigned c. 990–1015) the dynasty again was strong and made stronger relations with other dynasties. Kokalla I was successful against the Pratiharas, the Kalachuri’s of Uttar Pradesh, the Guhilas of Marwar, the Chauhans of Shakambhari, and the kings of Vanga and Konkan.
Gangeyadeva (reigned 1015–41AD): An important factor contributing to the success of his kingdom was that, under him the kingdom eluded the raids of Sultan Mahmud which affected most of the other powerful dynasties in north and north-west. In the token of his great victory he assumed the proud title of ‘Trikalingadhipati’ which meant ‘Lord of Trikalinga’. He got the title of Vikramaditya. He issued coins of different metals, sizes, weights which were made of different metals like gold, silver and copper. Probably he ascended the throne before 1019 AD and died about 1040 AD.
Karna (reigned 1041–73): He was the son and successor of Gangeyadeva. He had the city Allahabad in his territory which was conquered by his father. He carried his victorious arms alone in the eastern coast as far as the country round Kanchi. A number of dynasties in the south such as the Pallavas, Kungas, Muralas, Pandyas (South) and Kuntalas, (probably the Chalukya King), Somesvara I, got defeated by him during 1048 AD. He proved to be a better ruler than his father. In 1072 AD, he abdicated the throne for his son Yasahkarna.
Conclusion
The founder of Kalachuri dynasty was Kokalla I. The Chedis had to defend their territory against the Palas and rulers of Kalinga. Gangeyadeva was one of the most important rulers of Kalachuri dynasty as his policies aimed to make the Chedis the paramount power of North India. The Kalachuris of Dahala reached to the summit of their political power in India during the 11th century AD. Its credit can be given to king Gangadeva. He died at the sacred city of Prayag (Allahabad). This dynasty had many capable rulers, yet The Kalachuris dynasty declined by 1181 AD.
I
Seuna (Yadava) dynasty
Capital – Devagiri
Common languages – Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit
Religion – Hinduism and Jainism
Established – c. 860
Disestablished – c. 1317
Preceded by Western Chalukya Empire
Succeeded by Delhi Sultanate
Political History
The Seuna, Sevuna or Yadava dynasty (850 – 1334) was a dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri(present-day Daulatabad in Maharashtra).
The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II.
The foundations of Marathi culture were laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities of Maharashtra’s social life developed during their rule.
The Seuna dynasty claimed descent from the Yadavas and therefore, its kings are often referred to as the “Yadavas of Devgiri”. The name is probably derived from the name of their second ruler, “Seunachandra”.
According to verse 21 of Vratakhand (a Sanskrit work by Hemadri), the Seunas were originally from Mathura and later moved to Dwaraka. Hemdari calls them Krishnakulotpanna (i.e., descendants of Lord Krishna).
According to scholars the Seuna rulers were of Maratha descent who patronized the Marathi language. the Yadava dynasty was “what seems to be the first true Maratha empire”.
A stone inscription found at Anjaneri, near Nasik, suggests that a minor branch of the Yadava family ruled a small district, with Anjaneri as its chief city. The inscription indicates that a ruler called Seunadeva, belonging to the Yadava family, called himself Mahasamanta and made a grant to a Jain temple.
Jijabai (the mother of Shivaji, who founded the Maratha Empire) belonged to the clan of Jadhavas of Sindkhed Raja, who also claimed descent from the Yadavas.
The founder of the Suena dynasty was Dridhaprahara, the son of Subahu. According to Vratakhanda, his capital was Shrinagara. However, an early inscription suggests that Chandradityapura (modern Chandor in the Nasik district) was the capital.
Bhillama V (1173-1192), son of Mallugi, established the sovereign Seuna kingdom. He took over the Chalukya capital of Kalyani in 1190 and founded Devagiri (now Daulatabad) as the capital of the Yadava dynasty.
The Seunas were bordered by aggressive neighbours on all sides: Paramara Rajputs of Malwa in the north, the Kakatiya dynasty in the east, Hoysalas in the south and the Solanki Rajputs of Gujarat in the west. As a precaution, they built their citadel at Devagiri. The citadel was situated on a hill rising 183 meters. The hill was enclosed by three lines of walls, each of which was defended by moatsand turrets. The outermost wall had a circumference of 4.4 km.
Singhana II 1200-1247 C.E. is considered the greatest ruler of the Yadava dynasty. During his rule the kingdom expanded from Narmada to Tungabhadra, reaching its zenith at the expense of Hoysalas in the south, Kakatiya dynasty in the east, Paramaras and Chalukyas in the north.
He founded the town Shinghanapur (or Singhanapur). He was a great patron of learning and literature. He established the college of astronomy to study the work of celebrated astronomer Bhaskaracharya. The Sangita Ratnakara, an authoritative Sanskrit work on Indian musicwas written by Sharngadeva (or Shrangadeva) during Singhana II’s reign. He also patronized Changadeva, the Kannada poet Kamalabhava.
There is a belief that Deoghur or Doulatabad was built in 1203 AD by a Dhangar or herdsman (Yadav Cowherds) who acquiring by some unusual good fortune vast wealth was named by his brother shepherds Raja Ram and soon after assumed the rank of a Raja.
Ramachandra (or Ramadevarava or Raja Ram), the grandson of Singhana II, ruled from 1271 to 1309 CE.
Hemadri (or Hemadpant) was Amachandra’s Shrikaranadhipa (Chief Minister). He compiled the encyclopedic Sanskrit work Chaturvarga Chintamani. He is said to have built many temples in a style known after him – Hemadapanti. He also invented the Modi script for writing Marathi. Hemadri wrote many books on vaidhyakshastra (medical science) and he introduced and supported Bajra cultivation.
In 1294, Ala-ud-din Khalji captured Devagiri. Khalji restored it to Ramachandra in return for his promise of payment of a high ransom and an annual tribute. However, this was not paid and the Seuna kingdom’s arrears to the Khalji dynasty kept mounting.
In 1307, Khalji sent an army commanded by Malik Kafur to Devagiri. Ramachandra was taken to Delhi. Khalji reinstated Ramachandra in return for a promise to help Khalji subdue the Hindu kingdoms in South India. In 1309, Malik Kafur mounted an assault on the Kakatiya dynasty from Devagiri.
Alauddin Khilji invaded Devagiri once when he was the crown prince. Alauddin Khilji once again invaded Devagiri in 1306. The invincible Malik Kafur was on the spearhead of the army. He was accompanied with Khwaja Haji. The governors of Malwa and Gujarat were ordered to help Malik Kafur. The huge army conquered Devagiri almost without a battle. Alauddin Khilji appointed Raja Ramchandra the governor of Devagiri. The kingdom was annexed by the Khalji Empire in 1317.
I
Western Ganga Dynasty
Intoduction
Capital – Kolar Talakad
Common languages – Kannada, Sanskrit
Religion – Jainism, Hinduism
Maharaja –
• 350–370 Konganivarma Madhava
• 986–999 Rachamalla V
Established 350
Disestablished 1000
Preceded by Pallava dynasty
Succeeded by Chola dynasty
The Western Ganga Dynasty (350 – 1000 C.E.) – an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India, known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over modern Orissa. The Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in South India, a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudra Gupta. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 C.E., initially ruling from Kolar and later moving their capital to Talakad on the banks of the Kaveri River in modern Mysore district.
After the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya over lordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta replaced the Chalukyas in 753 C.E. as the dominant power in the Deccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta over lordship and successfully fought along side them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late tenth century, north of Tungabhadra river, the emerging Western Chalukya Empire replaced the Rashtrakutas and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri river. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 C.E. resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region.
Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution made an important contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but most famously for their patronage towards Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The kings of that dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Ninth-century Kannada literature refer to the Ganga King Durvinita of sixth century as an early writer in Kannada language prose. Many classics had been written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management.
Origin
Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty (prior to the fourth century).
Some mythical accounts point to a northern origin while theories based on epigraphy propose a southern origin. Historians who propose the southern origin have further debated whether the early petty chieftains of the clan (prior to their rise to power) had been natives of the southern districts of modern Karnataka, the Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu or of the southern districts of modern Andhra Pradesh. Those regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically. A theory states that the Gangas may have taken advantage of the confusion caused by the invasion of southern India by the northern king Samudra Gupta prior to 350, and carved out a kingdom for themselves. The area they controlled had been called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore, Chamarajanagar, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state. At times, they also controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu (Kongu region starting from the sixth century rule of King Avinita) and Andhra Pradesh (Ananthpur region starting from middle of fifth century). Konganivarman Madhava, who made Kolar his capital around 350 and ruled for about 20 years, had been the founding king of the dynasty.
Politically, the Gangas constituted feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas. Inscriptions, which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy, the Pallavas of Kanchi, attest to that.
AnantavarmanIn 753, when the Rashtrakutas replaced the Badami Chalukyas as the dominant force in the Deccan, the Gangas offered stiff resistance for about a century. Chodaganga
Administration
Principles stated in the ancient text Arthashastra influenced the Western Ganga administration. The praje gavundas mentioned in the Ganga records held similar responsibilities as the village elders (gramavriddhas) mentioned by Kautilya. Succession to the throne had been hereditary but instances of that being overlooked occurred. The kingdom divided into Rashtra (district) and further into Visaya (consisting of possibly 1000 villages) and Desa.
Economy
The Gangavadi region consisted of the malnad region, the plains (Bayaluseemae) and the semi-malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills. The main crops of the malnad region had been paddy, betel leaves, cardamom and pepper and the semi-malnad region with its lower altitude produced rice, millets such as ragi and corn, pulses, oilseeds and it also served as the base for cattle farming. The plains to the east, constituted flat lands fed by Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vedavati rivers where cultivations of sugarcane, paddy, coconut, areca nut (adeka totta), betel leaves, plantain and flowers (vara vana) had been common. from the Melkote copper plates and Mamballi inscriptions, Medutambihalli inscription of ninth century Sources of irrigation had been excavated tanks, wells, natural ponds and water bodies in the catchment area of dams (Katta). Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seem to indicate an expanding agrarian community.
Religion
The Western Gangas gave patronage to all the major religions of the time; Jainism and the Hindu sects of Shaivism, Vedic Brahminism and Vaishnavism. Scholars have argued that some Gangas kings may have been prejudiced. Some historians believe that the Gangas had been ardent Jains.
Jainism became popular in the dynasty in the eighth century when the ruler King Shivamara I constructed numerous Jain basadis.
Society
The Western Ganga society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. Women became active in local administration because Ganga kings distributed territorial responsibility to their queens such as the feudal queen Parabbaya-arasi of Kundattur and the queens of King Sripurusha, Butuga II and feudal king Permadi. The son-in-law, the wife or by the daughter evidentially inherited fiscal and administrative responsibility. The position of prime minister of King Ereganga II and position of nalgavunda (local landlord) bestowed upon Jakkiabbe, the wife of a fallen hero offer examples. When Jakkiabbe took to asceticism, her daughter inherited the position.
The devadasi system (sule or courtesan) in temples prevailed, modeled after the structures in the royal palace. Contemporaneous literature such a Vaddaradhane makes a mention of the chief queen (Dharani Mahadevi) accompanied by lower ranking queens (arasiyargal) and courtesans of the women’s royal quarter (pendarasada suleyargal). Some of the courtesans and concubines employed in the harem of the kings and chieftains attained respect, examples being Nandavva at whose instance a local chief made land grant to a Jain temple. Education in the royal family had been closely supervised and included such subjects as political science, elephant and horse riding, archery, medicine, poetry, grammar, drama, literature, dance, singing and use of musical instruments. Brahmins enjoyed an influential position in society, enjoying exemption from certain taxes and customs due on land. In turn they managed public affairs such as teaching, local judiciary, functioned as trustees and bankers, managed schools, temples, irrigation tanks, rest houses, collected taxes due from villages and raised money from public subscriptions.
Architectural
The Pallava and Badami Chalukya architectural features, in addition to with indigenous Jain features, influenced the Western Ganga style of architecture. The Ganga pillars with a conventional lion at the base and a circular shaft of the pillar on its head, the stepped Vimana of the shrine with horizontal mouldings and square pillars had been features inherited from the Pallavas. Those features exist in structures built by their subordinates, the Banas and Nolambas.
The monolith of Gomateshwara commissioned by Chavundaraya constitutes the high point of the Ganga sculptural contribution in ancient Karnataka. Carved from fine-grained white granite, the image stands on a lotus. Lacking support up to the thighs, standing 60 feet tall with the face measuring 6.5 feet. With the serene expression on the face of the image, its curled hair with graceful locks, its proportional anatomy, the monolith size, and the combination of its artistry and craftsmanship have been declared the mightiest achievement in sculptural art in medieval Karnataka. It is the largest monolithic statue in the world.
Language
The Western Gangas used Kannada and Sanskrit extensively as their language of administration. Some of their inscriptions had been written bilingual in these languages. In bilingual inscriptions the formulaic passages stating origin myths, genealogies, titles of Kings and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit, while the actual terms of the grant such as information on the land or village granted, its boundaries, participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues and other local concerns appeared in the local language. The usage of those two languages showed important changes over the centuries. During the first phase (350-725), Sanskrit copper plates dominated, indicating the initial ascendancy of the local language as a language of administration and that the majority of records from that phase had been Brahmadeya grants (grants to Brahmin temples). In the second phase (725-1000), lithic inscriptions in Kannada outnumbered Sanskrit copper plates, consistent with the patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains who used Kannada as their medium to spread the Jain faith.
Hoysala Empire
Introduction
Extent of Hoysala Empire, 1200 C.E.
Capital Halebidu Belur
Common languages Kannada, Sanskrit
Religion Hinduism, Jainism
King
• 1026–1047 Nripa Kama II
• 1292–1343 Veera Ballala III
• Established – 1026
• Disestablished – 1343
Preceded by Western Chalukya Empire
Succeeded by Vijayanagara Empire
Origin
The Hoysala Empire stood as a prominent South Indian empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the tenth and the fourteenth centuries. The capital of the empire initially resided at Belur, later moving to Halebidu.
The Hoysala rulers originally lived as hill peoples of Malnad Karnataka, an elevated region in the Western Ghats range. In the twelfth century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the then ruling Western Chalukyas and Kalachuri kingdoms, they annexed areas of present day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri River delta in present day Tamil Nadu. By the thirteenth century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh in Deccan India.
The Hoysala era emerged as an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered today primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples exist across Karnataka, including the well known Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronized the fine arts. That patronage encouraged literature to flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit.
History
The first Hoysala family record dates to 950, naming Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I (976). Nripa Kama II, who held such titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty, succeeded the next ruler, Munda (1006–1026). From those modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a strong subordinate of the Western Chalukyas. Through Vishnuvardhana’s expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a real kingdom for the first time. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Halebidu.
Veera Ballala II, the grandson of Vishnuvardhana, fulfilled his ambition of creating an independent empire by freeing the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187. Thus the Hoysalas began as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gradually established their own empire in Karnataka with such strong Hoysala kings as Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and later Veera Ballala III. During that time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony – Pandya, Kakatiya and Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri being the other kingdoms. Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the title “Establisher of the Chola Kingdom” (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), “Emperor of the south” (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and “Hoysala emperor” (Hoysala Chakravarthi).
The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and giving them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. Vira Narasimha II’s son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific “uncle” (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom also. Toward the end of the 13th century, Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in the Tamil country which had been lost to the Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of the kingdom.
Major political changes were taking place in the Deccan region in the early 14th century when significant areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alauddin Khalji, the Sultan of Delhi, was determined to bring South India under his domain and sent his commander, Malik Kafur, on a southern expedition to plunder the Seuna capital Devagiri in 1311. The Seuna empire was subjugated by 1318 and the Hoysala capital Halebidu was sacked twice, in 1311 and 1327.
By 1336, the Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the tiny kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu empire who resisted the invading armies. Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from the north and the Madurai Sultanate to the south. Then, after nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in 1343, and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire were merged with the areas administered by Harihara I in the Tungabhadra River region. This new Hindu kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara Empire.
Economy
The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy. The kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to beneficiaries who then became landlords to tenants producing agricultural goods and forest products. There were two types of landlords (gavunda); gavunda of people (praja gavunda) was lower in status than the wealthy lord of gavundas (prabhu gavunda). The highlands (malnad regions) with its temperate climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn were staple crops in the tropical plains (Bailnad). The Hoysalas collected taxes on irrigation systems including tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers. Irrigation tanks such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara were created at the expense of the state.
Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian kingdoms was a flourishing business on the western seaboard. The forests were harvested for rich woods such as teak which was exported through ports located in the area of present-day Kerala. Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade with overseas kingdoms. South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood, camphor and condiments to China, Dhofar, Aden, and Siraf (the entryport to Egypt, Arabia and Persia). Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers, goldsmiths and other skilled craftsmen whose trade directly or indirectly related to temple construction were also prosperous due to the vigorous temple building activities.
The village assembly was responsible for collecting government land taxes. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included the original assessment (Kula) plus various cesses. Taxes were levied on professions, marriages, goods in transit on chariots or carriages, and domesticated animals. Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village records. The village assembly could levy a tax for a specific purpose such as construction of a water tank.
Administration
In its administrative practices, the Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of territory. Records show the names of many high-ranking positions reporting directly to the king. Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers responsible for foreign affairs were designated Sandhivigrahi and the chief treasurer was Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari. Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the Hoysala court was the Dharmadhikari.
The kingdom was divided into provinces named Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha, listed in descending order of geographical size. Each province had a local governing body consisting of a minister (Mahapradhana) and a treasurer (Bhandari) that reported to the ruler of that province (Dandanayaka). Under this local ruler were officials called Heggaddes and Gavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land. Subordinate ruling clans such as Alupas continued to govern their respective territories while following the policies set by the empire.
An elite and well-trained force of bodyguards known as Garudas protected the members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that they committed suicide after his death. Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera Ballala II.
King Vishnuvardhana’s coins had the legends “victor at Nolambavadi” (Nolambavadigonda), “victor at Talakad” (Talakadugonda), “chief of the Malepas” (Maleparolganda), “Brave of Malepa” (malapavira) in Hoysala style Kannada script. Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was a tenth of the Honnu, Haga was a fourth of the Pana and Visa was fourth of Haga. There were other coins called Bele and Kani.
Religion
The defeat of the Jain Western Gangas by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnavism and Lingayatism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Panchakuta Basadi, Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the eighth century with the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta. The only places of Buddhist worship during the Hoysala time were at Dambal and Balligavi. Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana, was a Jain but nevertheless commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur, evidence that the royal family was tolerant of all religions.
During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present-day Karnataka inspired by three philosophers, Basava, Madhvacharya and Ramanuja.
While the origin of Lingayatism is debated, the movement grew through its association with Basava in the 12th century. Madhvacharya was critical of the teachings of Adi Shankara and argued the world is real and not an illusion. His Dvaita Vedanta gained popularity, enabling him to establish eight mathas in Udupi. Ramanuja, head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga) and wrote Sribhashya, a critique on Adi Shankara’s Advaita.
Society
Hoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. During this period, the society became increasingly sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in administrative matters as shown in contemporary records describing Queen Umadevi’s administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his long military campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated some antagonistic feudal rebels.
Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Queen Shantala Devi’s skill in dance and music, and the 12th century vachana sahitya poet and Lingayati mystic Akka Mahadevi’s devotion to the bhakti movement is well known.
Temple dancers (Devadasi) were common and some were well educated and accomplished in the arts. These qualifications gave them more freedom than other urban and rural women who were restricted to daily mundane tasks. The practice of sati in a voluntary form was prevalent and prostitution was socially acceptable. As in most of India, a caste system was conspicuously present.
Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Han Chinese and people from the Malay Peninsula. Migration of people within Southern India as a result of the expansion of the empire produced an influx of new cultures and skills. In South India, towns were called Pattana or Pattanam and the marketplace, Nagara or Nagaram, the marketplace serving as the nuclei of a city. Some towns such as Shravanabelagola developed from a religious settlement in the 7th century to an important trading center by the 12th century with the arrival of rich traders, while towns like Belur attained the atmosphere of a regal city when King Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakesava Temple there. Large temples supported by royal patronage served religious, social, and judiciary purposes, elevating the king to the level of “God on earth”.
Temple building served a commercial as well as a religious function and was not limited to any particular sect of Hinduism. Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple built at Belur, elevating Halebidu to an important city as well. Hoysala temples however were secular and encouraged pilgrims of all Hindu sects, the Kesava temple at Somanathapura being an exception with strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions. Temples built by rich landlords in rural areas fulfilled fiscal, political, cultural and religious needs of the agrarian communities. Irrespective of patronage, large temples served as establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people of various guilds and professions sustaining local communities as Hindu temples began to take on the shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.
Architecture
The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features.
Language
The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong, and this is seen even in their epigraphs, often written in polished and poetic language, rather than prose, with illustrations of floral designs in the margins. According to historian Sheldon Pollock, the Hoysala era saw the complete displacement of Sanskrit, with Kannada dominating as the courtly language. Temples served as local schools where learned Brahmins taught in Sanskrit, while Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks. Schools of higher learning were called Ghatikas. The local Kannada language was widely used in the rising number of devotional movements to express the ecstatic experience of closeness to the deity (vachanas and devaranama). Literary works were written in it on palm leaves which were tied together. While in past centuries Jain works had dominated Kannada literature, Shaiva and early Brahminical works became popular during the Hoysala reign. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama.
Kakatiya Kingdom
Introduction
Status Empire
(Subordinate to Western Chalukyas until 1163)
Capital Orugallu (Warangal)
Common languages Sanskrit, Telugu
Religion Hinduism
Government Monarchy
• Established – 1163
• Disestablished – 1323
Preceded by Western Chalukya Empire & Eastern Chalukyas
Succeeded by Bahmani Sultanate, Musunuri Nayaks, Reddy dynasty & Vijayanagara Empire
Origin
The Kakatiya rulers traced their ancestry to a legendary chief or ruler named Durjaya. Many other ruling dynasties of Andhra also claimed descent from Durjaya. Nothing further is known about this chief.
Most of the Kakatiya records do not mention the varna (social class) of the family, but the majority of the ones that do, proudly describe them as Shudra. Examples include the Bothpur and Vaddamanu inscriptions of Ganapati’s general Malyala Gunda senani. The Kakatiyas also maintained marital relations with other Shudra families, such as the Kotas and the Natavadi chiefs. All these evidences indicate that the Kakatiyas were of Shudra origin.
A few copper-plate inscriptions of the Kakatiya family describe them as belonging to the Kshatriya (warrior) varna.
Relationship to the Rashtrakutas
Early members of Kakatiya family appear to have served as military generals of the Rashtrakutas, as indicated by a 956 inscription of the Vengi Chalukya prince Dānārnava.[26] The inscription suggests that an attack by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III forced the Vengi Chalukya king Amma II to flee his kingdom, after which Dānārnava (titled Vijayaditya) ruled the kingdom as a Rashtrakuta vassal.
As sovereigns
Prataparudra I
The 1149 Sanigaram inscription of Prola II is the last known record of the Kakatiyas as vassals. The 1163 Anumakonda inscription of Prataparudra I is the earliest known record that describes the Kakatiyas as a sovereign power.
Ganapati
Just as the Seuna and Hoysala dynasties took control of linguistically related areas during the 13th century, so too did the Kakatiyas under the rule of Ganapati.
Rudrama Devi
Rudrama Devi, also known as Rudramadevi, reigned around 1262–1289 CE (alternative dates: 1261–1295 CE) and is one of the few queens in Indian history. Sources disagree regarding whether she was the widow of Ganapati or his daughter.
Prataparudra II
The earliest biography of Rudrama Devi’s successor, Prataparudra II, is the Prataparudra Caritramu, dating from the 16th century. His reign began in 1289 (alternative date: 1295) and ended with the demise of the dynasty in 1323.
Decline
The Kakatiya kingdom attracted the attention of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji because of the possibility for plunder. The first foray into the Kakatiya kingdom was made in 1303 and was a disaster due to the resistance of the Kakatiya army in the battle at Upparapalli.
In 1309 Alauddin sent his general, Malik Kafur, in an attempt to force Prataparudra into acceptance of a position subordinate to the sultanate at Delhi. Kafur organised a month-long siege of Orugallu that ended with success in February 1310. Prataparudra was forced to make various symbolic acts of obeisance designed to demonstrate his new position as a subordinate but, as was Alauddin’s plan, he was not removed as ruler of the area but rather forced thereafter to pay annual tribute to Delhi. It was probably at this time that the Koh-i-Noor diamond passed from Kakatiya ownership to that of Alauddin, along with 20,000 horses and 100 elephants.
Geography
The Kakatiya base was the city of Orugallu in the dry uplands of northern Telangana on the Deccan Plateau. From there they expanded their influence into Coastal Andhra, the delta between the Godavari and Krishna rivers that feed into the Bay of Bengal. According to Rao and Shulman, the latter contained a high proportion of Brahmins while the former was the haunt of “peasants, artisans and warriors”. Under the Kakatiyas, cultural innovation often began in the uplands, was refined in the lowlands and then recycled back into the Deccan. This bi-directional flow of cultural influences brought into being a feeling of cultural affinity between those who spoke the Telugu language where nothing of that nature had previously existed.[e] The unification of the distinct upland and lowland cultures was their most significant political achievement, achieved through a process of binding many locally powerful figures in allegiance to the empire.
The area of land under Kakatiya control reached its zenith around the 13th century CE during the rule of Ganapati Deva. By this time, South India and the Deccan was essentially under the aegis of four Hindu monarchies, of which the Kakatiyas were one. The four dynasties were in a constant state of warfare with each other, with the Kakatiyas eventually exercising control from close to Anagondi in the west to Kalyani in the north-east, and down to Kanei and Ganjam district in southern Orissa.
Legacy
Tughlaq control of the area lasted only for around a decade. The fall of the Kakatiya dynasty resulted in both political and cultural disarray because of both disparate resistance to the sultanate and dissension within it. The structure of the Kakatiya polity disintegrated and their lands soon fell under the control of numerous families from communities such as the Reddies and Velamas. As early as 1330, Musunuri Nayaks who served as army chiefs for Kakatiya kingdom united the various Telugu clans and recovered Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled for half a century. Surrounded by more significant states, by the 15th century these new entities had ceded to the Bahamani Sultanate and the Sangama dynasty, the latter of which evolved to become the Vijayanagara empire.
Sena dynasty
Intoduction
Capital Gauda, Bikrampur, Nabadwip
Common languages Sanskrit
Religion Hinduism (Vedic Hinduism, Shaivism, Tantra and Vaishnavism)
• Established CE 1070
• Disestablished CE 1230
Preceded by Pala Empire
Succeeded by Deva dynasty
Society
The Sena rulers consolidated the caste system in Bengal.[need quotation to verify] Although Bengal borrowed from the caste system of Mithila, caste was not so strong in Bengal as in Mithila.
Architecture
The Sena dynasty is famous for building Hindu temples and monasteries, which include the renowned Dhakeshwari Temple in what is now Dhaka, Bangladesh.
In Kashmir, the dynasty also likely built a temple knows as Sankara Gaureshwara.
Literature
The Sena rulers were also great patrons of literature. During the Pala dynasty and the Sena dynasty, major growth in Bengali was witnessed. Some Bengali authors believe that Jayadeva, the famous Sanskrit poet and author of Gita Govinda, was one of the Pancharatnas (five gems) in the court of Lakshmana Sena. Dhoyin – himself an eminent court poet of Sena dynasty – mentions nine gems (ratna) in the court of Lakshmana Sena, among whom were:
Govardhana
Sarana
Jayadeva
Umapati
Dhoyi/ Dhoyin Kaviraja
Legacy
After the Sena dynasty, the Deva dynasty ruled in eastern Bengal. The Deva dynasty was probably the last independent Hindu dynasty of Bengal.